Word search in L2 Chinese: differential practices and evidence for the development of interactional competence

This study examined the effectiveness of incidental focus on form in facilitating second language learning for learners of different proficiency levels in a synchronous computer-mediated communication environment. Sixteen native speaker (NS)-nonnative speaker (NNS) dyads and fourteen NNS-NNS dyads were formed. The participants completed two communicative tasks. Language-related episodes (LRE), mini-dialogues in which learners either explicitly or implicitly ask or talk about language or question their own or/and interlocutors' language use, were identified and used as a basis for individualized tailor-made tests to assess the learners' subsequent learning outcome. The results reveled that in the NS-NNS dyads, no significant difference in the frequency of LREs produced was found between the lower- and higher-proficiency learners whereas in the NNS-NNS dyads, the lower-proficiency learners produced significantly more LREs than their higher-proficiency interlocutors. Additionally, the learners of both proficiency groups interacting with NSs produced significantly more LREs than learners interacting with NNSs. However, no significant differences were found in the test performance of learners of different proficiency levels in either dyadic type.

Although the use of machine translation (MT) has been widely studied in second language (L2) learning contexts, the cognitive processes involved in L2 learners’ processing of MT output remain largely unexplored. Using eye-tracking technology, this study investigates how L2 learners of varying proficiency levels (high vs. low) process machine-translated errors under different text presentation formats (consecutive vs. simultaneous). Fifty-five Korean learners of English participated in an acceptability judgment task in which they read sentence pairs consisting of a Korean sentence followed by its English translation and rated the accuracy of the translated sentences on a four-point scale. The learners’ acceptability judgments of MT errors, response times, reading times, and the number of fixations and revisits were measured and analyzed. The results revealed substantial proficiency-related differences in how learners interact with different presentation formats. Compared to their low-proficiency counterparts, high-proficiency learners not only demonstrated more accurate judgments and efficient processing of the linguistic input, but also exhibited format-independent performance, maintaining consistent patterns across presentation formats. Low-proficiency learners, on the other hand, were significantly affected by presentation format, performing better when source and target texts were presented on separate, consecutive screens rather than simultaneously. These findings suggest that consecutive presentation of machine-translated text may be particularly beneficial for low proficiency learners, highlighting the importance of text presentation format in MT-assisted language learning by learners of different proficiency levels.

The effects of strategy instruction on writing strategy use for students of different proficiency levels

This study was conducted to find out the types of lexical errors that high and low proficiency learners produced in their writing, and find the differences and similarities from the production of the two groups. To answer the research questions, the writers used the theory by James (2013) about lexical error classification. This study was a qualitative study. The sources of the data of this study were the lexical errors from 32 writing drafts. The writers divided the students into two groups: eight students from high proficiency level and eight students from low proficiency level. The findings showed that the high proficiency learners produced five types of formal errors and four types of semantic errors, while the low proficiency learners produced two types of formal errors and six types of semantic errors. In conclusion, the high and the low proficiency learners’ lexical error productions are due to the learners’ lack of knowledge in sense relation and collocation, and the learners’ wrong terms of near-synonyms production.Keywords: lexical errors, high proficiency learners, low proficiency learners, error analysis

Reading comprehension entails a set of distinct, yet interdependent cognitive, linguistic, and nonlinguistic processes. Previous second language (L2) Chinese studies have identified significant and positive impacts of grapho-morphological knowledge at the character and subcharacter (radical) levels on passage reading comprehension; however, little is known regarding how early L2 grapho-morphological knowledge at the character and radical levels jointly predict later L2 reading comprehension. This study aimed to fill this gap. One hundred and five beginning-level L2 Chinese collegiate learners were recruited, and completed two character-related and two radical-related tasks in Week 8, as well as one reading comprehension tasks in Week 18. The main findings, based on correlational and path analyses, suggested that L2 Chinese learners’ early character-level and radical-level grapho-morphological knowledge significantly predicted later reading comprehension, yet the interrelations among grapho-morphological knowledge at the character and radical levels were complex. Path analyses identified direct and indirect paths from early character-level grapho-morphological knowledge to later reading comprehension, as well as indirect paths from early radical-level grapho-morphological knowledge to later reading comprehension. Methodological and pedagogical implications for L2 Chinese reading research and practices are discussed.

Dynamic assessment (DA) breaks the traditional dichotomy between assessment and instruction by including mediation in assessment procedures ((Poehner Dynamic assessment: A Vygotskian approach to understanding and promoting second language development. Springer, Berlin, Germany, 2008)). The focus of DA is on how students or test-takers learn and change with mediation rather than what they can do alone. Traditionally, DA requires the presence of a person as the mediator, such as the teacher, to guide another individual’s or student’s learning. This human mediation is the focus of the majority of DA research. With the advancement of intelligent computing and its applications in language education, the boundaries between mediators and mediational tools can be crossed to facilitate language instruction and learning at any time and in any place. Against this backdrop, this study aims to expand DA research by applying pre-designed and standardized mediation via the computer, that is, computerized dynamic assessment (C-DA). It explores innovative and efficient mediational tools to facilitate second language (L2) development with a focus on L2 Chinese learners’ pragmatic competence.The study reported in this chapter centers on Chinese learners’ ability to comprehend implicature (i.e., implied meaning) with computerized mediation through C-DA. The mediation is modeled based on pragmatics research, and it serves as a metacognitive tool. In particular, the mediation aims to help L2 Chinese learners 1) notice and pay attention to both literal and implied meanings, and 2) understand indirect speech acts in Chinese. Participants’ test-taking processes were video recorded. Semi-structured interviews were conducted to let participants reflect upon their learning processes during C-DA. This chapter provides a case analysis of an intermediate-level Chinese learner’s interactions with C-DA and how she used the computerized mediation to improve her performance during the test. The chapter ends with a discussion on the current situation of pragmatic instruction in language classrooms, and talks about the potential of computerized mediation to facilitate the development of L2 pragmatic competence and to cross boundaries in learning environments and traditional teacher-student roles for ubiquitous learning of languages.KeywordsL2 ChinesePragmaticsComputerized mediation

This study examines the responses of 60 Spanish, Chinese, and German L2 learners to English sentences with empty pronominal categories (ECs). Empty pronouns are not only acceptable in finite clauses of Spanish and Chinese but are pragmatically more natural (Rizzi, 1982; Huang, 1984, 1985). However, the phenomena are not sanctioned in standard German, which is similar to the condition for English. These facts were taken to indicate that the parametric apparatus governing pronoun conduct in the L1 of the Spanish and Chinese L2 learners would be less like that of German learners to a significant degree. It was also expected that if all three groups were asked to judge and edit English sentences with null pronouns, the Spanish and Chinese Ss would make significantly more errors than would the German Ss because of parametric adjustments than the former two groups would need to make. But this outcome was not fully supported by the data as it was only the Spanish Ss and not the Chinese Ss whose mean errors were significantly higher than those of the German group. Evidence indicated that typological parameters linked to pragmatic versus syntactic motivations of L1 had to be considered in accounting for the results.

This chapter reports on a study of the effectiveness of interaction in synchronous computer-mediated communication (SCMC) context by comparing the nature of negotiations between learners of different proficiency levels in different dyadic types (NS/NNS and NNS/NNS). Dyads performed two tasks using textual SCMC interactions. Language-related episodes (LRE) were identified and used as a basis for individualized tailor-made tests to assess the learners' subsequent learning outcome. The results revealed that in the NS-NNS dyads, no significant difference in the frequency of LREs produced was found between the lower- and higher-proficiency learners whereas in the NNS-NNS dyads, the lower-proficiency learners produced significantly more LREs than their higher-proficiency interlocutors. Additionally, the learners of both proficiency groups interacting with NSs produced significantly more LREs than learners interacting with NNSs. However, no significant differences were found in the test performance of learners of different proficiency levels in either dyadic type.

Automatic speech recognition (ASR) technology affords language learners the ability to evaluate their pronunciation accuracy by comparing their intended spoken output with the transcribed text produced by ASR-based dictation applications. However, earlier dictation tools were criticized for producing low level recognition rates for non-native speech. Further investigation on the transcription accuracy of new ASR dictation tools for non-native speech is therefore necessary. This study aimed to evaluate the accuracy of three modern ASR dictation software programs with young Taiwanese learners of English. Capabilities of these ASR applications were also explored by assessing whether the transcription accuracy of high and low proficiency learners’ can be differentiated. Thirty junior high school students dictated the same 60 sentences used in Derwing et al.’s (2000) original dictation study, and their outputs were further analyzed. The results indicated that the transcription accuracy rates of high proficiency learners were comparable to the accuracy rates of native English speakers in previous studies, suggesting that current dictation programs have become more accurate in transcribing non-native speech. Results also show that low proficiency learners’ accuracy rates were significantly lower compared to high proficiency learners, indicating that the programs were able to differentiate proficient and less proficient learners.

This study examined the effectiveness of incidental focus on form in facilitating second language learning for learners of different proficiency levels in a synchronous computer-mediated communication environment. Sixteen native speaker (NS)-nonnative speaker (NNS) dyads and fourteen NNS-NNS dyads were formed. The participants completed two communicative tasks. Language-related episodes (LRE), mini-dialogues in which learners either explicitly or implicitly ask or talk about language or question their own or/and interlocutors' language use, were identified and used as a basis for individualized tailor-made tests to assess the learners' subsequent learning outcome. The results reveled that in the NS-NNS dyads, no significant difference in the frequency of LREs produced was found between the lower- and higher-proficiency learners whereas in the NNS-NNS dyads, the lower-proficiency learners produced significantly more LREs than their higher-proficiency interlocutors. Additionally, the learners of both proficiency groups interacting with NSs produced significantly more LREs than learners interacting with NNSs. However, no significant differences were found in the test performance of learners of different proficiency levels in either dyadic type.

This paper mainly focused on the rhythm patterns in Chinese L2 English speech, either in read or spontaneous speech style. The main purpose is to investigate the rhythmic differences between Chinese L2 and English L1 speakers as well as the possibility of rhythmic variation between spontaneous and read speech style; and last but not least, to figure out the effects of disfluency on Chinese L2 English rhythm. It is found that Chinese L2 learners can successfully acquire discourse rhythm patterns in a more natural speech style but how to manipulate vocalic duration variability is still a major challenge. Compared with English natives, Chinese L2 learners are considerably more disfluent, in terms of time-related and performance-related aspects; moreover, apply different planning strategies from English natives. Temporal fluency has a big impact on Chinese L2 speech rhythm.

This study examined Chinese-as-a-second-language (L2 Chinese) learners’ speech production ability from a dual perspective: speech competence and speech performance. A total of 118 valid L2 Chinese learners finished two developed tests in this study, namely, the Chinese speech competence test and the Chinese speech performance test. The results suggested that L2 Chinese learners’ speech competence and speech performance, as a twofold rendering of their L2 speech production ability, not only showed a significant positive correlation with a large effect size (Pearson’sr = .598) but also significantly predicted each other with a large effect size (Cohenf2 = .555). However, such large effect sizes of the correlation and the prediction between speech competence and speech performance were not supported among the upper-intermediate L2 Chinese learners. This suggested that the development between speech competence and speech performance may be more unbalanced among the upper-intermediate L2 Chinese learners compared with their advanced counterparts. The study adds evidence to the call for a multidimensional evaluation of L2 speech production ability. It is hoped that the dual approach (i.e., speech competence and speech performance) proposed in the present study may contribute to a more comprehensive evaluation of learners’ L2 Chinese speech production ability. Consequently, classroom-based teaching can be tailored to facilitate a more balanced development of L2 Chinese learners’ speech competence and speech performance.

Polysemy refers to multiple senses related to a single word form. It constitutes a significant portion of the vocabulary stock of a language and presents a particular challenge to second language (L2) learners. A particular difficulty for the L2 learner is learning the various patterns, or polysemy constructions, in which a given word might occur. Polysemy constructions in L2 acquisition are under-investigated compared with the voluminous works on polysemy in cognitive semantics in the first language (L1) and the traditional focus on single words in L2 vocabulary research. The paucity of research on Chinese L2 acquisition also highlights the urgency of studies on Chinese L2 acquisition of polysemy constructions. This study investigated the Chinese L2 acquisition of shang (to go up) constructions by English L1 learners. Lexical network theory provides the theoretical framework for testing the hypothesis that development of overall L2 proficiency is accompanied by the corresponding development of both L2 learners’ knowledge of polysemy constructions and their perception of sense relatedness of the target polysemous word. Furthermore, this knowledge and perception is predicted to increasingly approximate that of L1 native speakers as L2 proficiency increases. Chinese L1 speakers (N = 501) provided the baseline data concerning the perceived sense relatedness of shang and the learning difficulty of the target constructions. Target polysemy constructions were elicited from a set of Chinese L1 speakers (n = 92). The second group of Chinese L1 speakers were also asked to assess the L2 teachability of the forms (n = 95). Another three groups of Chinese L1 participants rated these constructions on imageability (n = 68), concreteness (n = 52), literalness (n = 56) and subjective frequency (n = 95), all possible factors affecting learning. The acquisition pattern of the constructions by Chinese L2 learners was then examined through tasks involving translation and judgements of sense relatedness. Chinese L2 learners of English L1 in Brisbane (n = 30) and Beijing (n = 66) representing a range of proficiency levels participated. The findings showed a scalable sequence in the Chinese L2 acquisition of the target constructions. The observed Chinese L2 acquisition sequence approximated the prototypicality patterns and subjective frequency evident in the Chinese L1 tasks. It was also evident that L2 proficiency level plays a significant role in determining the proximity of the Chinese L2 learners’ patterns to that of the Chinese L1 speakers (n =43). The results are explained in terms of the theoretical framework used as well as to language specific factors in the L1 and L2. This study has theoretical, methodological and pedagogical implications. At the theoretical level, the research not only provides evidence for a stable and systematic pattern of acquisition for the target L2 polysemy constructions, but also provides a principled explanation for the learning patterns observed. The study extends previous research by giving a more comprehensive picture of the L2 acquisition pattern and a deeper understanding of potential factors affecting L2 learning. Methodologically, the present research proposes a manageable model for future empirical studies on the construction dimension of L2 lexical knowledge. Pedagogically, the results suggest that it may be helpful for L2 teachers to develop an awareness of the underlying systematicity of sense relatedness. In terms of teaching, the results prompt a number of questions for future research about the teaching of polysemy constructions. These include the extent to which sense relatedness can be taught explicitly and how this process might interact with increasing L2 proficiency.

Based on Gagné's Information Processing Theory (IPT), which stresses staged processing and the transfer of learning to real-world tasks, this study takes 677 English majors as participants from a local Chinese normal university, who were administered two digital reading tests and a Survey of Digital Reading Strategies (SODRS), with a view to explore the profile of the digital reading strategies, the correlation between reading proficiency and digital strategy use as well as the differences in the application of digital reading strategies between the high proficiency learners and the low proficiency learners. The research results show that: (1) The majority of students use digital reading strategies at a moderate level, with global strategies being the least frequently used, then support strategies and problem-solving strategies. (2) Significant positive correlations are observed between digital reading proficiency and global strategy, problem-solving strategy as well as support strategy, respectively, with correlation coefficients being 0.591, 0.543 and 0.522. (3) Independent samples t-tests reveal significant differences in strategy use between high and low proficiency learners. This study not only provides insights into the further study on targeted interventions to enhance the reading proficiency of students but also contributes to promoting students’ digital literacy within underdeveloped areas in China.

The impetus of the present study was to scrutinize the impact of planning and proficiency on 172 EFL learners’ written task performance regarding concept load, fluency, complexity and accuracy. Planning was operationalized at two levels: pretask planning (PTP) and on- line planning (OLP). Participants of this study were two groups, high and low proficiency learners who were randomly chosen. The first group was required to plan for their performance for 10 minutes and take notes before they performed the tasks, whilst the participants in the second group began writing immediately and took time as long as they like. The participants’ performances were then analyzed utilizing paired samples t-test. The results of statistical analysis showed that low-proficiency learners appear to benefit more from planning time with respect to concept load, fluency, and complexity. On the other hand, high-proficiency learners were advantaged by planning time concerning concept load and accuracy.