Word creation

In morphology, the formation of new words is based on the word-formation process. The word-formation process itself is the concept of how new words can be formed. Several processes underlie the formation of new words in a language. This theory is based on Yule (2010). A comprehensive analysis requires answers to questions. 1. How new words are formed in Indonesian language communication, 2. What formations are dominant in the formation of new words? Observation serves as a data collection tool. The author collects new words to determine the natural word formation conditions used in communication and to identify the process of word formation without the intervention of the researcher. Finally, they are classified according to the process of word formation. This study uses data triangulation to ensure the research obtains valid data. The first-word formation process is blending which dominates the formation of new words in Indonesian with 13 processes found. The second process that dominates is the acronym with 8 found processes. The clipping process also includes the most processes in the formation of new words with 5 processes. The creation of new words found is not only blending, acronyms and clipping but also borrowing processes with 3 processes and compounding with 1 process. The first-word formation process is blending which dominates the formation of new words in Indonesian with 13 processes found. The second process that dominates is the acronym with 8 found processes. The clipping process also includes the most processes in the formation of new words with 5 processes. The creation of new words found is not only blending, acronyms and clipping but also borrowing process with 3 processes and compounding with 1 process.

This paper dicsusses some features of word creation that this type of lexicogenesis differentiate from word formation (as lexicogenesis by typical morphological processes). The word creation processes that have been analyzed are blending, clipping, and acronimization. As the differential features of these processes, creation (inventivenes), intentionality, and (semantic) nontransperancy, as well as form reduction are presented. The conclusion is that in the case of the opposition between word creation and word formation, it is better to talk about prototypical categories. In this context, creation (inventivenes), intentionality, (semantic) non-transperancy, and form reduction are considered as prototypical features of the word creation processes.

Word Formation

This study investigates the processes of compounding and conversion in Albanian, two major types of word formation alongside derivation. Unlike derivation, which has been extensively studied in Albanian linguistics, conversion and compounding have not received adequate theoretical attention. conversion is often conflated with derivation, lacking a distinct theoretical framework that recognizes its full potential for new word creation. Similarly, the study of compounding in Albanian linguistics has been dominated by orthographic considerations, resulting in a limited understanding of its role in word formation. The research aims to address these gaps by employing a cross-linguistic approach, comparing the capacities of conversion and compounding in Albanian to those in German, English and other Indo-European languages of Europe. This comparison highlights the untapped potential of these processes in Albanian. Due to the isolation of Albanian linguistics from other European linguistic traditions and the marginalization of word formation in morphology studies, these word formation types have been underutilized. The objective is to establish a comprehensive theoretical framework for both conversion and compounding in Albanian, emphasizing their semantic aspects. By doing so, this study seeks to elevate these processes to their rightful place among word formation types and to encourage their use by Albanian speakers. This approach will demonstrate that conversion in Albanian extends beyond merely changing word classes and that compounding should be understood through its semantic unity rather than orthographic criteria.

Word Formation in Electronic Dictionaries Pius ten Hacken In this article I will discuss various aspects of the relationship of word formation to dictionaries. Although the focus here is on electronic dictionaries, the discussion will also touch on certain types of dictionaries for human use, especially learner's dictionaries. I propose that an approach diverging significantly from the traditional treatment of word formation in dictionaries has decisive advantages for the development and use of electronic dictionaries, and that some of these advantages carry over to the treatment of word formation in learner's dictionaries . In section 1 the problem is explained. Section 2 is devoted to a review of some approaches that are modeled on the traditional division of labor between dictionaries and grammars. In section 3 the approach incorporated in Word Manager is presented, which has a number of advantages compared to the approaches discussed in section 2. Section 4 outlines a way of using these advantages in learner's dictionaries . Section 5 summarizes the conclusions. 1. Introduction One of the most common ways for the vocabulary of a language to be extended is by the creation of new words by word-formation rules. Word formation is traditionally divided into derivation, e.g., forming regularize from regular, and compounding, e.g., forming bookshop from book and shop. Word formation as a whole, considered as a component of interacting rules, is very productive. A rule such as the one adding -ness to adjectives can apply to almost any adjective, and the adjective itself may be the result of another word-formation rule, e.g., adding -ful or -less to a noun (fruitful ) . The meaning of such words is largely predictable on the basis of their components, but various de- Word Formation ¡? Electronic Dictionaries1 59 grees of irregularity may arise once the new word exists. Thus, textbook and modifier have specialized senses that are more specific than can be predicted on the basis of the rules and the words to which they apply. 1.1. Electronic and other dictionaries In dictionaries for human users, word formation is usually not seen as a major issue. There is an almost general consensus that can be summarized as follows: it is impossible to achieve completeness because of the productivity of word formation and at the same time unnecessary to aim for it because of the regularity of the new words. Of course irregular cases should be treated, but there is no need to treat a compound like textbook as being any different from simple words such as textile. As far as the relationship of text and book is relevant, it is reasonable to expect that any user will immediately recognize this relationship . Regular cases such as yellowness are typically given as run-on entries without definition, considering space limitations. This treatment is legitimized by the assumption that human users of the dictionary know the word-formation rules of their language and can apply them even without being consciously aware of them. Electronic dictionaries are different from dictionaries for human users primarily because they are intended for use by computers in systems developed in computational linguistics (CL). Examples of CL systems are grammar checkers, machine translation systems, and dialog systems giving access to information encoded in a database. In general, CL systems are programs that make the computer perform certain tasks dependent on human language. The properties of computers differ greatly from those of human dictionary users and in order to fulfill the users' needs, electronic dictionaries should be set up quite differently from dictionaries for human users. The basic differences are that electronic dictionaries are more explicit and more specialized. Explicitness is required because only information expressed in a formalism the computer can read is accessible to the CL system. Specialization is required not only for areas we find in human dictionaries, e.g., language and subject area, but also for the task of the CL system, the theory used in the approach to this task, and the formalism with its exact interpretation. As a consequence of these differences, two important issues in the production of electronic dictionaries are reusability and consistency . Specialization results in an increasing number of different die- 160Pius ten Hacken...

Reviewed by: Yearbook of morphology 1999 ed. by Geert Booij, Jaap van Marle Edward J. Vajda Yearbook of morphology 1999. Ed. by Geert Booij and Jaap van Marle. Dordrecht: Kluwer, 2001. Pp. 319. ISBN 079236631X. $157.50 (Hb). This Yearbook volume contains eleven articles, five on diachronic aspects of morphology, the rest dealing with miscellaneous topics. The data derives mainly from Romance, Germanic, and Slavic languages. Martin Haspelmath is guest editor for the section on diachronic morphology. The articles here focus mainly on the motivation behind morphological change, or on the notion of which formal elements in a word (stem vs. affix, phonological stem trait vs. inflection) actually convey semantic content. Andrew Carstairs-McCarthy’s ‘Umlaut as signans and signatum: Synchronic and diachronic aspects’ (1–23) explores an instance where a phonological trait has come to express informational content. In ‘What sort of thing is a derivational affix? Diachronic evidence from Romanian and Spanish’ (25–52), Martin Maiden makes a similar argument for the function of derivational affixes, which, contrary to some claims (cf. Robert Beard, Lexeme morpheme base morphology, New York: SUNY Press, 1995), are shown not to be semantically vacuous. In ‘The development of “junk”: Irregularization strategies of have and say in the Germanic languages’ (53–74), Damaris NÜbling analyzes how these originally weak verbs became irregular across the various Germanic languages. Elisabetta Magni’s ‘Paradigm organization and lexical connections in the development of the Italian passato remoto’ (75–96) explores cognitive motivations for the development of irregular preterite forms. Elke Ronneberger-Sibold’s ‘On useful darkness: Loss and destruction of transparency by linguistic change, borrowing, and word creation’ (97–120) likewise deals with speaker awareness of phonological processes—a factor that manifests itself in speaker preference for specific types of word formation. The volume’s remaining six articles cover a range of topics, most dealing with cognitive processing. Marco Baroni’s ‘The representation of prefixed forms in the Italian lexicon’ (121–52) uses the distribution of intervocalic [s] and [z] allophones in Northern Italian dialects as evidence for whether speakers have come to regard certain historically prefixed stems as monomorphemic. In ‘On inherent inflection feeding derivation in Polish’ (153–83), Bożena Cetnarowska argues that in certain Polish word forms derivation must be able to follow as well as precede inflection. This raises interesting questions about the notion of lexical stem. In ‘The processing of interfixed German compounds’ (184–220), Wolfgang U. Dressler, Gary Libben, Jacqueline Stark, Christiane Pons, and Gonia Jarema explore the cognitive processing of compound words such as leben-s-lang ‘life-long’. Andrew Hippisley’s ‘Word formation rules in a default inheritance framework: A network morphology account of Russian personal nouns’ (221–61) provides an excellent encapsulation of network morphology, as well as a convincing account of how affix rivalry and exceptionality can be simultaneously accommodated in a theory of word form creation. Steven G. LaPointe’s ‘Stem selection and OT’ (263–97) gives an optimality theory account of stem and affix allomorphy, based on data from a variety of languages, including Korean and Cherokee. The book’s final article, Irit Meir’s ‘Verb classifiers as noun incorporation in Israeli sign language’ (299–319), argues that certain hand gestures bear striking similarities to the properties of certain types of noun incorporation. This excellent study is a welcome inclusion here for the new dimension it adds to understanding the essence of morphological structure shorn of the epiphenomenon of sound. All of these articles reflect the ‘cutting edge’ of morphological research, making this volume, like its predecessors in the same series, an important acquisition for any linguist or librarian serious about keeping pace with morphological theory. Edward J. Vajda Western Washington University Copyright © 2005 Linguistic Society of America

The term ‘word formation’ is ambiguous in modern linguistics. In one usage of the term, it is equivalent to ‘morphology’ and refers to matters such as affixation and reduplication as used in the creation of words. In the more widely accepted sense of the term, word formation refers to the creation of new lexemes in a given language. Thus it specifically excludes inflectional morphology, such as that which makes manages and managed from the base manage. At the same time, it may include things that are only marginally considered to be morphology, or that may be excluded from morphology. (L. Bauer 2006: 632, emphasis in the original)

The article is devoted to the formation of a system of terms to define the concept of «cutting off» the phonemic end or a certain part of the creative basis in the process of new words formation in the Ukrainian language, which contributes to the terminological order in Ukrainian derivatology. Formation of the terms truncation and trimming in Ukrainian derivatology, notes the influence of the corresponding terms of Russian derivatology on this process is studied in the article. The correlation of the term truncation with numerous terms based on the clipping (rejection) of the part of the creative basis, accompanied by phonetic changes and without them, in particular with such as befixless (suffixless) method of creation, rederivation (inverse word formation), zero apophysis telescopy, etc., in different periods of linguistics development. The characteristic features of two terminological units at the present stage of development of Ukrainian derivatology are singled out: truncation as a morphological phenomenon and truncation as an independent way of word formation. It was found that truncation of the creative basis is possible not only during affixation, but also in the absence of any affixes in derived words. This phenomenon is observed in the creation of complex words of different types. It is called an abbreviation truncation of bases or an abbreviation type of abbreviation, based on the abbreviation type of word formation is distinguished, or an abbreviation, the essence of which is the formation of an abbreviation word due to abbreviation of words of the corresponding nominative phrase. There is a tendency for the term Elysium to function, in particular, it was that this term has not become widely used in Ukrainian word formation, apparently because the phenomenon it calls is not very characteristic of word-forming acts of the Ukrainian language. It is found out that in Ukrainian theoretical and applied derivatology the term truncation appeared in connection with the need for morphological adaptation of the phonemic end of the creative basis with the phonemic beginning of the word-forming suffix in the process of their combination and formation of a new word. It was considered one of the types of mutual adaptation of morphemes, along with the alternation of phonemes and interfixation during affix word formation. With this meaning it is codified both in word formation and in word-forming morphology.

The term productivity most commonly applies to word formation, but in principle it can be applied to any linguistic process. A process is said to be productive if it applies without restriction to give rise to novel expressions, for instance, new words. Ideally, speakers apply productive processes without conscious deliberation and in principle they can be applied by any and all competent native speakers. Creative coining of words, by contrast, is typically a one-off intentional act (nonce word creation), often of one individual, and often with the aim of drawing attention to the coined word for the purposes of advertising, humor, and so on. Creative coining often involves extra-grammatical processes which cannot be described deterministically, unlike bona fide linguistic rules. However, many productive processes are restricted in various ways, and some of the extra-grammatical devices are very frequent, so the distinction between productive, grammatical word formation and (nonce) word creation is blurred.

Although the concept of the performative has influenced literary theory in numerous ways, this book represents one of the first full-length studies of performative language in literary texts. Creating States examines the visionary poetry of John Milton and William Blake, using a critical approach based on principles of speech-act theory as articulated by J.L. Austin, John Searle, and Emile Benveniste. Angela Esterhammer proposes a new way of understanding the relationship between these two poets, while at the same time evaluating the role of speech-act philosophy in the reading of visionary poetry and Romantic literature. Esterhammer distinguishes between the 'sociopolitical performative,' the speech act which is defined by a societal context and derives power from institutional authority, and the 'phenomenological performative,' language which is invested with the power to posit or create because of the individual will and consciousness of the speaker. Analysing texts such as The Reason of Church-Government, Paradise Lost, The Marriage of Heaven and Hell, and Jerusalem, Esterhammer traces the parallel evolution of Milton and Blake from writers of political and anti-prelatical tracts to poets who, having failed in their attempts to alter historical circumstances through a direct address to their contemporaries, reaffirm their faith in individual visionary consciousness and the creative word - while continuing to use the forms of a socially or politically performative language.

The English language is a language of “fertility” due to its continuous formation of new words in modern times. However, the Chinese language is “infertile” because it has basically stopped creating totally new words. The general trend in the development of a Chinese character in the Chinese history has been moving from complexity to simplicity. As a result, it leads to the "infertility" of the Chinese language and makes it difficult to combine a limited number of different strokes within a limited space known as方块字Fāngkuàizì ‘Square Block Word’. What is a totally new word in English is simply a combination of used words in Chinese. The Chinese language's capability of saving horizontal and linear space makes this combination feasible to express a new meaning. Three types of constraint arising from limited type and number of Strokes, General Trend toward Simplicity and Square-Framed Space have made their concurrent contribution to the "infertility" of the Chinese word formation. The preference of the Chinese language for new combinations of used words over the creation of total new Chinese words in modern times constitutes a major difference between the formation of English words and the formation of Chinese words in modern times.

The article views analogy as one of the basic laws of language development. The action of the law of analogy is studied on the material of the occasional word creation of the poets of the 60-ies of the XX century E.A. Evtushenko and A.A. Voznesensky. The relevance of the study of occasionalisms is stipulated by insufficient knowledge of the interaction of regular and occasional word formation and the role of analogy in creating a poetic image. The main research method is the word-formation analysis of occasional units, which made it possible to analyze the derivational mechanism based on assimilation to ordinary regular models. Contextual analysis is applied, revealing the semantic side of the new lexeme. Component analysis was used to detect syntagmatic connections of occasional units. The author of the article notes the importance of the law of analogy not only in the choice of formants, but also in the procedure of the derivational process. The action of the law in the formation of occasional steps of word-formation nests is substantiated. The conditional entry of new units into the usual system and their ability to fill word-formation gaps are analyzed. In the course of the research, a lexical and word formation phenomenon of a different order was discovered a word formation paradigm, reflecting the processes of one word formation stage. The productivity of some root morphemes is traced in connection with their frequency in usage and participation in the formation of value concepts. The results of the analysis of language units confirm the importance of the law of analogy in the creation of occasionalisms and the expression of the authors assessment in general. In general, the results of the analysis of linguistic units confirm the high degree of significance of the law of analogy in the creation of occasionalisms and their use in poetic texts. The role of analogy as text formation means and a tool for constructing poetic imagery is emphasized. The conclusion is made about the systematic nature of the formation of lexical-derivational and semantic connections in the array of occasional vocabulary of E.A. Evtushenko and A.A. Voznesensky.

Nominal prefixes play a crucial role in Xitsonga grammar by shaping word formation, categorisation and meaning. These affixes that are attached at the beginning of nouns convey crucial information about number, possession and noun class. While the influence of nominal prefixes on simple word formation has been explored to some extent, their impact on compound word formation in Xitsonga remains relatively understudied. This study delves into this underexplored area, investigating the intricate relationship between nominal prefixes and compound word construction in Xitsonga. The study used convenience sampling to collect data from secondary sources such as Xitsonga grammar books, dictionaries and academic articles. This study is grounded on a functional linguistic approach, which provides a robust framework for analysing the interactions between nominal prefixes and compound word formation. The findings unveil the profound influence of nominal prefixes on compound word construction in Xitsonga. These prefixes not only shape word categories and meanings but also express quantity, indicate location and convey time. These insights emphasise the significant role of nominal prefixes in defining Xitsonga’s grammatical structure, expanding its vocabulary and reflecting its cultural context.Contribution: This study contributes to the existing literature of compounding by highlighting the pivotal role of nominal prefixes in Xitsonga grammar, particularly in shaping word formation, categorisation and meaning. It examines how prefixes influence the creation of compound words in Xitsonga and their morphological functions.

Word formation is creation of new words, which sometimes changes a word’s meaning. Words can be formed from multi word phrases as well. In many cases vocabularies in language are formed from combination of words (Haspelmath 2010: 102). Word formation does not only involve changing physical form of the word itself, but also changing the meaning of said word. There are also instances where the physical form retain its original form while the meaning changes. The phenomenon is called semantic change (Stockwell-Minkova 2001:149). In this thesis the research proposed that the said phenomenon occur in virtual environment, such as in MMORPG. Multiplayer online games that feature fantasy setting virtual environment. For the purpose of this research, Dragon Nest South East Asia server was chosen as data source. The samples are taken from players perusing [World] communication channel. The result of the data analysis has shown that the phenomenon of word formation could occur in a virtual environment of MMORPG, specifcally in Dragon Nest SEA. There are two word formation processes found: processes that involve physical changes and processes that do not involve physical changes but rather innate meaning. It is done by both processing daily language vocabulary both physically and changing its innate meaning to create new words that suits the said virtual environment context. This fnding may influence future research on a fresh perspective and untilled feld.

The past century witnessed a dynamic process in the lexicon of languages, in terms of both borrowings and newly created words. Since the beginning of 2020, the phenomenon of the Covid-19 pandemic has provoked a significant increase in the number of words in all languages, thus bringing many changes on social and psychological levels, interfering both in the life of each citizen and in the daily vocabulary. In its first part, this paper intends to make a brief presentation of the French and Romanian dictionaries and minidictionaries in which the pandemic vocabulary plays an important role, including the most popular ones, such as Le Petit Robert and Le Petit Larousse illustré (2022), the new edition of DOOM – The Orthographic, Orthoepic and Morphology Dictionary of the Romanian Language, published by the end of 2021, but also online dictionaries such as Lexiques et vocabulaire published by the Canadian Government in April 2021, Mini-dicționar de pandemie COVID-19 – A Pandemic Minidictionary by Ghenadie Râbaciov, etc. The second part of the paper concentrates on some atypical dictionaries in order to underline their importance in a specific type of perception of the phenomenon called the Covid-19 pandemic. These dictionaries integrate the ludic creation of words, manifested in two different ways: one involving humour, the other simply playing with internalised definitions of certain words from the newly created vocabulary. The diversity of examples allows a reflection on word formation, with the conclusion that the most frequent processes are affixation, compounding, and the creation of portmanteau words. This last process is particularly well represented by Olivier Auroy’s Dicorona (2020), while with the Mic dicționar literar de pandemie – Small literary dictionary of the pandemic (2020) created by the Romanian journal Scena9, we have interesting definitions of words belonging to this newly created vocabulary. Keywords: Ludic creation; Lexicon; Vocabulary; The Covid-19 pandemic; Dictionary; Humour.