Women's Community Service, 1940–1960: Insights from a Cohort of Gifted American Women

Continuing a decade-long trend, findings from recent annual surveys of first-year college students have documented their participation in community service as high-school seniors at record high levels (Higher Education Research Institute, 1999, 2000, 2001). Eighty-one percent of the 2000 respondents reported volunteering during senior year, although only 24% expected to continue their volunteer work in college. Because other recent data indicate that 64% of undergraduates actually do volunteer (Levine & Cureton, 1998), the college experience may involve students in the community in ways they do not anticipate when they enter. For the majority of students, these findings suggest, involvement in community service may be episodic and contextually driven--not so much a deeply motivated value-oriented choice as an occasional activity that personal circumstances may dictate, encourage, support, or deter. The responses of the first-year students to other survey items appear to support this claim. For example, while volunteering in high school is on the rise among the respondents, trends over the past decade indicate a simultaneous decline in both interest and participation in other forms of voluntary activity, including community action programs, social activism, political participation, and general civic engagement and altruism (HERI, 1999). Political engagement, according to the 2000 Freshman Survey, is at an all-time low, while becoming well-off is the most important of the measured goals (HERI, 2001). Most strikingly, just 59% of first year students reported a personal commitment to helping others in difficulty, the lowest response level in over a decade. Paradoxically, while more students are volunteering than ever before, they are not espousing the civic values that community service is intended to encourage. For some students, involvement in community service could be motivated less by caring than by other factors, such as personal interests, group norms, or the social benefits they derive from participation. This study investigates the phenomenon of shifting patterns of community service participation during the transition between high school and college and, in so doing, seeks to arrive at greater understanding of the dynamics of social participation and involvement among young adults. The transition to college typically brings about change in students' lives as they move into new educational and social environments (Chickering, 1969; Chickering & Reisser, 1993; Upcraft & Gardner, 1990). While some research addresses college student motivation for involvement in community service (Fitch, 1987; Serow, 1991; Waterman, 1997; Winniford, Carpenter, & Grider, 1997), and other research suggests that high-school participation predisposes students to volunteer in college (Astin & Sax, 1998; Astin, Sax, & Avalos, 1999; Berger & Milem, 2002), little empirical evidence exists to characterize the relationship between high school and college participation. Moreover, little is known about the factors that lead students either to drop or sustain their community service after high school or to begin to volunteer in college. This investigation builds on an earlier study of community service participation among high-school students (Marks, 2002). That study employed Selznick's (1992) sociological theory of social participation to account for variation in patterns of students' community involvement. According to Selznick, individuals who involve themselves in the community do so on a segmental or core basis. Segmental participants, who volunteer from time to time, tend to be motivated by personal interests or extrinsic factors, including normative environments. Core participants are more likely to be motivated by values or deeply held beliefs. Applying the theory of social participation to students' participation in community service during the transition between high school and college, we expect to find similar patterns, a point we return to in a subsequent section. …

Community service is a common activity for many athletes and teams. Often it involves raising money for a cause, or promoting healthy, safe, or prosocial behavior; other times, it simply brings athletes together with members of community. Many of latter types of events bring community members to stadium or send athletes to schools, camps, malls, or hospitals. These events can offer public relations benefits to teams, but what do these activities mean to individual athletes who participate in them? In many studies of athletes' involvement in community service, cause promotion, and even sponsored events, athletes' own perspectives have only infrequently been addressed. Researchers have examined effects on fans, organizations, communities, and even society. (1) When special issues of Journal of Sport Management and Journal of Organization & Management recently focused on sport and social responsibility, researchers looked at these same stakeholders, but did not examine effects on or perspectives of athletes involved. (2) Relatively few studies have explored athletes' perspectives on community service. (3) A potentially related study of a baseball team in New York-Penn League (NYPL), for example, examined effects on organization, not players. (4) The current study attempts to fill a gap in literature by examining athletes' perspectives on participating in community service. During 2009 and 2010 seasons, authors interviewed eighty baseball players from ten of fourteen affiliated teams playing in NYPL (Class A--Short Season). All of players interviewed indicated that they are required or strongly encouraged to perform community service. Correspondence with general managers of eleven of fourteen NYPL teams confirmed that some parent organizations require a minimum number of hours or events per player, while others do not require a set amount but do reward participation, either through an appearance fee or with end-of-season awards. Even when community service is voluntary, general managers estimated that 75 to 100 percent of their players participate in community service, with exception of one general manager, who estimated that of his players participate. One general manager estimated that of his team's community service involves children, but overall general managers estimated that than half or the majority of community service involves local children; numerical estimates ranged from 6o to 95 percent. Clearly participation in community service is norm among NYPL players, making community service potentially an important element of off-field socialization and a bridge between players and community. The NYPL was chosen for this study for several reasons. First, from a methodological perspective, players at this organizational level tend to be more accessible and open. (5) One executive explained that more experienced players tend to be much more guarded. Second, from a social and developmental perspective, community service affords opportunities for direct interaction with fans. Players interviewed in present study emphasized that, for most of them, NYPL is their first time playing as professionals in front of fans. At this level, players often depend on fans for housing, rides, and other forms of social and material support. Players also indicated that good relations with fans can favorably impress organization. Thus, serving these important stakeholders has both professional and social implications for NYPL players. Third, from a managerial perspective, community service might affect players more at this level than at other levels. Some players believed that community service has more meaning and impact early in their professional careers. They said that major-league players, for example, may have more opportunities overall and more resources for helping others, but NYPL offers more access to and interaction with fans, and more opportunities for players to give--and to see results of their giving--directly. …

A Study of Student Involvement in Community Service Introduction I learn more through my volunteer work than I ever do in any of my classes at school. Talking to people from diverse backgrounds provides so much insight that people just can't imagine. I study all these different theories in political science and sociology, but until you get a chance to see how the social world influences people's everyday lives, it just doesn't have that much meaning. I have been involved in volunteer work ever since I was in high school, and I'll probably continue to do stuff like Habitat [for Humanity] until I'm old and gray. I get a lot out of working to serve others, and it's a good feeling to know that I have helped someone even if it's in some small way. It helps me to cherish people more and understand what life is all about. The preceding comments are from college students who discussed their involvement in community service and the meaning they derive from such activities. Both of these students give voice to a form of learning that may be termed in that a concern for the social good lies at the heart of the educational experience (Delve, Mintz, & Stewart, 1990). These students are reflective of others described throughout this article who through participation in community service explore their own identities and what it means to contribute to something larger than their individual lives. In recent years, the role of higher education as a source of citizenship preparation has come to the forefront. In this regard, higher education reflects a rising tide of concern for national service and the common good, as programs such as AmeriCorps, Learn and Serve America, Habitat for Humanity, and Big Brothers and Big Sisters have evoked our most prominent leaders as well as citizens across the country to commit themselves to the service of others. The influence this national movement has had on the academy is most apparent in the growth of organizations such as Campus Compact and Campus Outreach Opportunity League (COOL) whose memberships and influence increased dramatically in the early 1990s (Markus, Howard, & King, 1993). Professional organizations associated with the academic enterprise also have added fuel to the growing concern over social responsibility and citizenship. For example, in 1997 the call for proposals from the American Association for Higher Education Conference on Faculty Roles and Rewards specifically identified an interest in how community service and service learning contribute to a more engaged faculty. The 1996 Annual Meeting of the American Educational Association was organized around the theme of Research for Education in a Democratic Society, and at the 1995 American College Personnel Association Annual Convention, one of the keynote speakers, Dr. Robert Coles, addressed the issue of moral education when he called for greater commitment to service learning and community service. Although it is hard to argue with calls to foster social responsibility among our students, our future leaders, there also is a tremendous need for clarification. With this said, the following key questions offer a guide for addressing some of the confusion revolving around community service: (1) Are community service and service learning interchangeable concepts or are there important differences? (2) What is the role of community service in engaging students as democratic citizens in a culturally diverse society? (3) Are there variations in the structure of service activities which produce different experiences for students? The first question is examined as I explore the relevant literature on community service and service learning. The second and third questions are addressed primarily through discussions of the theoretical perspective, findings, and implications. Thus, the latter two questions form the heart of the theoretical and empirical analysis offered throughout this article. …

This paper explores tertiary students’ perception on their involvement in a university-based cross-age tutoring community service project known as Edutainment. The project which received an industrial grant by KHIND Starfish Foundation was organized by Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM) Cawangan Johor Malaysia. The project involved thirty UiTM students who acted as the facilitators as well as five lecturers who were the advisors for the project. The project was carried out for eight weeks among underprivileged one hundred Standard Four and Five primary school students who were provided with special learning modules which focused on providing learning tips and motivation particularly in learning the English Language, Bahasa Melayu (Malay language), Mathematics and Science. After the project ended, the facilitators were asked to answer a set of questionnaires to analyse their perception regarding their involvement in the community service project and how it benefits them. The findings revealed that they perceived the project provides positive impacts towards their communication skill as well as motivation in community service volunteerism.

To help inform discussion of the educational value of community service, we report results of an experiment in integrating service-learning into a large undergraduate political science course. Students in service-learning sections of the course were significantly more likely than those in the traditional discussion sections to report that they had performed up to their potential in the course, had learned to apply principles from the course to new situations, and had developed a greater awareness of societal problems. Classroom learning and course grades also increased significantly as a result of students’ participation in course-relevant community service. Finally, pre- and postsurvey data revealed significant effects of participation in community service upon students’ personal values and orientations. The experiential learning acquired through service appears to compensate for some pedagogical weaknesses of classroom instruction.

The purpose of this study was to examine factors impacting college student leadership development within a college of agriculture at the University of Missouri. This study employed descriptive relational survey methods to examine the impact of involvement factors (participation in organizations, community service and leadership education) on college student leadership development. The target population was all junior and senior students in the College of Agricutlure, Food and Natural Resources at the University of Missouri (N=1,124). Out of the calculated sample size (n=287), 107 participants completed the online instrument (37.3%). In the examination of the leadership outcomes, the greatest mean was reported for the outcome of commitment and the lowest mean was reported for the outcome of change. Most students were involved with two to five different organizations during their college career. A majority (92.5%) of the students reported that they have engaged in community service during their college career, although 44.9% of respondents did not participate in community service on a regular basis. Students responded as being involved in one to two short-term leadership education programs, but no long-term leadership education programs. Eight separate linear regression models were analyzed to determine the impact of involvement factors on the development of socially responsible leadership.

Background: Participation in community service work is often used as a surrogate for measurement of humanitarianism and altruism in medical school applicants during the selection process. Students who continue to be involved in community service during medical school score higher in empathy scales and perform better academically. Despite this, student involvement in community service has not been well studied, particularly during postgraduate training. Methods: First-year medical student (MS1), first year resident (PGY1), and final year resident (FYR) curriculum vitaes (CVs) were collected. CVs were analyzed using NVivo to determine the percentage of each CV committed to demonstrating different activities. These percentages were then analysed for patterns of change as trainees progress through their medical education. Results: Fifty-nine trainees (12 MS1, 24 PGY1, and 23 FYR.) submitted CVs for analysis. Community service gradually becomes a less significant portion of a medical trainee’s CV. Volunteering in the community goes from 22.5% of a medical student applicant´s resume to 2.9% of a graduating resident's CV. Volunteering within the school however remains consistent (11.3–13%). Much of the community volunteer activities are replaced by research, which increases from 19.2%– 43.4% of the CV. Conclusions: Medical trainees place decreasing value on presenting their community service involvement as they progress through training, while research increasingly dominates their CV. However, service activities within their institutions remain constant.

This study examined the effect of volunteer youth participation in decision-making and community service on performance of humanitarian organizations in Kenya, using the Kenya Red Cross Society (KRCS) as a case study. The study adopted a descriptive research design with a quantitative approach. Data were collected from a sample of 810 respondents comprising youth volunteers, staff, and governance members drawn from KRCS’s 47 county branches and eight regional offices. Structured questionnaires were used, and quantitative data was analyzed using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS). Descriptive statistics summarized respondent characteristics, while correlation, ANOVA, and multiple regression analyses established the strength and significance of relationships among variables. Results revealed statistically significant positive relationships between youth engagement and organizational performance. Participation in community service had the strongest influence (β = 0.640, p < .001), followed by decision-making participation (β = 0.130, p < .001). The findings also highlighted regional gender disparities, with male dominance in the North Eastern and Upper Eastern regions and higher female participation in Coast and West Kenya. Overall, the study concludes that meaningful youth engagement enhances organizational efficiency, innovation, and community outreach. It recommends institutionalizing inclusive decision-making structures, strengthening youth-led community service initiatives, and addressing gender and regional imbalances to optimize the contribution of young volunteers to organizational performance.

Background: Participation in community service within underprivileged communities among medical students is associated with numerous positive outcomes, such as promoting empathy, enhancing leadership qualities, and fostering civic and social responsibility. We conducted a qualitative study to understand the experiences, motivations and student-reported outcomes on personal growth, when medical students in a developed Asian country participate in local and overseas community services.Methods: We recruited medical students from Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine (YLLSOM), National University of Singapore, who were leaders of a community service project organized in medical school. Twelve one-to-one interviews were held for the participants from 6 to 8 January 2013. Interviews were audio-recorded and transcribed into free-flow text. Thematic analysis was performed independently by three researchers.Results: Motivations to participate in community service include past-positive community service experience and present motivations such as compassion, self-discovery etc. Students reported higher empathy levels, improved communication, organization, decision-making, interpersonal, and leadership skills. The degree of influence on academic work and residency choice were varied.Conclusion: Community service in medical school enriches medical students by bringing about improved self-reported outcomes, leadership skills, and interpersonal skills. It has some bearing on residency choice and academic work.

This community service activity was carried out for the Ikatan Keluarga XIII Koto Kampar Sadayoung Community in Bangkinang, Riau Province, where the purpose of this community service was to provide a provision of understanding regarding the application of sharia family financial management to manage expenses and increase family savings in the Ikatan Keluarga XIII Kota Kampar Community in Bangkinang. The methods used in this community service activity are through counseling and presentations, discussions and exercises for participants. The counseling method is used to explain the importance of knowing the application of sharia family financial management to manage expenditure levels and increase savings. The presentation method is used to show a work process, namely the stages of how to become a person who has a prosperous economy according to sharia principles. Meanwhile, the question and answer method is used to provide opportunities for community bond participants to consult in understanding further the material that has been explained. The exercise method is used to see the level of understanding of the service participants before and after the material is delivered. The availability of adequate experts in delivering this material, the enthusiasm of the participants, the support of the head of the community bond for the implementation of the activity are supporters of the implementation of this PkM activity. The obstacles faced were that the community service participants did not yet have initial knowledge about the material on Islamic family financial management and time constraints in delivering the material. The results of this community service show that: The community service program can be organized well and run smoothly according to the activity plan that has been prepared, the results of this community service concluded that: First, Most community service participants do not yet understand Islamic family financial management well, Second, The achievement of the objectives of the community service program for community service participants, the entire program that has been carried out with collaboration between the community and the community service has been carried out all and in accordance with the event rounddown and the time that has been determined previously.

The story of women's participation in the ecumenical movement can indeed be described as a pilgrimage of justice and peace, as well as a story of mission. From the earliest days of ecumenism--whether in its formal, institutional structures or in the lively work and witness of local communities around the globe--questions about women's role in the churches have been intertwined with questions about the social, economic, and cultural forces that affect women's lives. With changing emphasis shaped by particular time and context, the consistent thread in the journey has been a will to respond to the call to participate in God's mission in the world in ways that contribute to wholeness and fullness of life for all God's people and to the flourishing of creation. While not always named or recognized as such, gender justice has been at the heart of this journey. Consistently, women have been seeking ecumenical space in which the diverse experiences of women, their voices and visions, and the conditions of injustice and oppression that have been the lot of many women around the world can be lifted up and addressed. And in that space, women have claimed their own agency of resistance and transformation. The story of women's work and witness in the World Council of Churches (WCC) is only one facet of this journey. Each church family and world communion could tell its own story and each local context has had times of ecumenical witness and action--often connected with global programs, but also representative of particular local needs and issues. Nevertheless, the WCC has played a key role since its inception in linking ecumenical women in local contexts with international networks and global currents. A review of WCC programmes and structures committed to the journey of gender justice reveals both the rich heritage of ecumenical women's work and the challenges and gaps that continue. Affirming the "service and status of women" In the 1940s, when the WCC was still in the process of formation, Twila Cavert, a Young Women Christian Association (YWCA) leader from the US, together with other women, gained the support of WCC leaders for a pre-assembly women's meeting and a survey of woman leaders worldwide about their vision for the work of women in the whole church. (1) The questionnaire netted detailed replies from women in 58 countries, and prompted the Reformed Church of France to request that the question of women's role be placed on the agenda of the first assembly in Amsterdam in 1948. There, the study report on "The Life and Work of Women in the Church" was received and its recommendation for a permanent commission to undertake ecumenical inquiry into issues related to women's ministry was accepted. Susannah Herzel writes of the significance of these first steps for the participation of women in churches around the world: "So the infiltration had begun. Member churches of the ecumenical movement had agents of change in their midst, and the troubling questions would be increasingly difficult to ignore." (2) The material generated by the study was developed into a book by Kathleen Bliss, published in 1952 as The Service and Status of Women in the Churches, (3) Interpreting the reports through the framework of women's various types of service--voluntary, full-time and professional, ordained, and participation in church governance--Bliss examined the contributions and limitations of each area of endeavour. She asked whether the churches were making the best use of women's gifts, or helping women to participate as Christians in the changes taking place in society as a whole. Writing during a period of flux in women's public and private roles, Bliss urged churches to recognize the implications of changing family and employment patterns. She asserted that "what is needed is ... an imaginative act of understanding ... [of the] ... revolutionary change in the place of women in society." (4) These reports from around the world provided evidence that responses to women's ministries ranged from indifference to active opposition. …

Community service is widely advocated as a method for advancing civic awareness and citizen responsibility in both secondary schools and colleges. Use of service learning in higher education has been promoted nationwide by academic, political, professional, and business leaders through such organizations as Campus Compact, American Association for Higher Education, Commission on Civic Renewal, and Corporation for National and Community Service (Bringle, Games, and Malloy 1999). In some cases, service has been institutionalized in colleges. Tufts University, for example, has added a College of Citizenship and Public Service through which students from various departments can complete a certificate program that integrates active service and citizenship studies into their major course of study (Zernike 2000). A recent report estimates that nearly two million students participate in service learning at four-year public and private institutions of higher education, and almost half of all community colleges offer service learning courses (Shumer and Cook 1999). Service learning has been applied in college courses as diverse as freshman composition, education, sociology, anthropology, business, and public policy.But does service learning—and community service more generally—help students learn about politics and government? And, what research is needed to determine whether service, in fact, contributes to students' civic education? Having recently completed an analysis of national survey data on secondary school students' participation in community service and its relationship to civic education (see Niemi, Hepburn, and Chapman 2000), we now turn to examining the implications of service learning for college political science teaching and research.

Community service is widely advocated as a method for advancing civic awareness and citizen responsibility in both secondary schools and colleges. Use of service learning in higher education has been promoted nationwide by academic, political, professional, and business leaders through such organizations as Campus Compact, American Association for Higher Education, Commission on Civic Renewal, and Corporation for National and Community Service (Bringle, Games, and Malloy 1999). In some cases, service has been institutionalized in colleges. Tufts University, for example, has added a College of Citizenship and Public Service through which students from various departments can complete a certificate program that integrates active service and citizenship studies into their major course of study (Zernike 2000). A recent report estimates that nearly two million students participate in service learning at four-year public and private institutions of higher education, and almost half of all community colleges offer service learning courses (Shumer and Cook 1999). Service learning has been applied in college courses as diverse as freshman composition, education, sociology, anthropology, business, and public policy. But does service learning—and community service more generally—help students learn about politics and government? And, what research is needed to determine whether service, in fact, contributes to students' civic education? Having recently completed an analysis of national survey data on secondary school students' participation in community service and its relationship to civic education (see Niemi, Hepburn, and Chapman 2000), we now turn to examining the implications of service learning for college political science teaching and research.

This article examines whether the motive behind community service performed during high school—either voluntary or required—influences engagement in volunteer work during the young adult years. Using a sample of students from the National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 ( N= 9,966), service work in high school is linked with community service in young adulthood. The findings show that participation in community service declines substantially in the 2 years following high school graduation but then rebounds slightly once members of the sample reach their mid-20s. In general, community service participation in high school was related to volunteer work both 2 and 8 years after high school graduation. However, those who were required to participate in community service while in high school were only able to sustain involvement 8 years after graduation if they reported that their participation was voluntary. Strengths and limitations of the analysis as well as implications for youth policy are discussed.

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