Abstract
A large retreat of sea-ice in the ‘stormy’ Atlantic Sector of the Arctic Ocean has become evident through a series of record minima for the winter maximum sea-ice extent since 2015. Results from the Norwegian young sea ICE (N-ICE2015) expedition, a five-month-long (Jan-Jun) drifting ice station in first and second year pack-ice north of Svalbard, showcase how sea-ice in this region is frequently affected by passing winter storms. Here we synthesise the interdisciplinary N-ICE2015 dataset, including independent observations of the atmosphere, snow, sea-ice, ocean, and ecosystem. We build upon recent results and illustrate the different mechanisms through which winter storms impact the coupled Arctic sea-ice system. These short-lived and episodic synoptic-scale events transport pulses of heat and moisture into the Arctic, which temporarily reduce radiative cooling and henceforth ice growth. Cumulative snowfall from each sequential storm deepens the snow pack and insulates the sea-ice, further inhibiting ice growth throughout the remaining winter season. Strong winds fracture the ice cover, enhance ocean-ice-atmosphere heat fluxes, and make the ice more susceptible to lateral melt. In conclusion, the legacy of Arctic winter storms for sea-ice and the ice-associated ecosystem in the Atlantic Sector lasts far beyond their short lifespan.
Highlights
The strongest storms in the Arctic Ocean typically occur during winter and originate from the North Atlantic Ocean[1,2] (Fig. 1)
The most pronounced retreat of Arctic winter sea ice is in the Barents Sea, where sea ice has thinned[15] and there has been a 47% reduction in ice extent over the satellite record[14]
We summarise the common patterns and characteristics of these six Arctic winter storms
Summary
The strongest storms in the Arctic Ocean typically occur during winter and originate from the North Atlantic Ocean[1,2] (Fig. 1). The number and intensity of Arctic winter storms has increased over the period 1979–20163–5 These storms often generate strong southerly winds that transport heat and moisture into the Arctic from the mid-latitudes, contributing to record breaking winter temperatures[6,7,8,9]. Following the rise in winter storm activity[3], the four lowest Arctic winter maximum sea ice extents in the satellite record were observed in the last four years (2015–2018)[14]. Earlier studies have relied heavily on atmospheric reanalyses, numerical models, remote sensing products, weather station data from the peripheries of the Arctic Ocean, or autonomous buoys. Such approaches present a number of problems. Uncertainties in snow depth on sea ice can induce large errors in ice thickness measurements from remote sensing[28,29,30], and buoys reflect point observations in a system with large spatial variability over small distances[31,32]
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