Widespread infections with bacterial and protozoan tick-borne pathogens in 22 wildlife species across South African game reserves.

A database of approximately 9000 trophy measurements of ungulates hunted in South Africa between 1993 and 2001 was analysed in order to detect species-specific,regional variation in mean trophy quality. Blesbok (Damaliscus dorcas), eland (Taurotragus oryx), impala (Aepyceros melampus), kudu (Tragelaphus strepsiceros), mountain reedbuck (Redunca fulvorufula) and springbok (Antidorcas marsupialis) showed statistically significant variation in trophy quality. A number of other species including blue wildebeest (Connochaetus taurinus), black wildebeest (Connochaetus gnou), bushbuck (Tragelaphus angusticeps), common reedbuck (Redunca redunca), gemsbok (Oryx gazella), red hartebeest (Alcelaphus buselaphus), nyala (Tragelaphus angasii) and waterbuck (Kobus ellipsiprymnus) were insignificant. The manipulation of trophy quality on ranches is speculated to be the major cause of these significant regional variations. It is recommended that species-specific baselines of trophy quality and associated levels of ‘acceptable manipulation’ be established and incorporated into a national trophy quality monitoring programme to provide some level of protection to an industry that contributes significantly to the South African economy.

Wildlife crop raiding was assessed in six chiefdoms of the Luangwa Valley, eastern Zambia between 2004 and 2008 to establish nature and extent of wildlife crop degredation and examine the impact of existing mitigation measures being implemented to deter wildlife crop raiding. Crop damage assessments, involving crop quality, stage of growth and proportion of crop damage, were conducted using six trained field enumerators. Structured questionnaires were administered randomly to local farmers that were inflicted by wildlife crop raiders to elucidate on-farm deterrence measures. Eleven species of wildlife were identified as ‘problem animals’: African elephant (Loxodonta africana), Hippopotamus(Hippopotamus amphibius), Bushpig (Potamochoerus larvatus), Yellow baboon (Papio cynocephalus), Porcupine (Hystrix africaeaustralis), African civet (Civetta civetta), Roan antelope (Hippotragus equinus), Lesser kudu (Tragelaphus strepsiceros), Eland(Taurotragus oryx), Cape buffalo (Syncerus caffer) and Warthog (Phacochoerus africanus). Results showed that African elephant caused the most damage, 67.82 and 98.41% of total wet and dry farming crop raiding incidences respectively, which occurred at crop maturity between February and April. Maize (Zea mays) and cotton (Gossypium hirsutum) were the most affected crops by problem animals, associated with 71.38 and 42.86% of the total crop raids in wet and dry farming seasons respectively. Frequency and extent of damages depended on deterrence measure applied on the crop fields. Of the six chiefdoms, in Malama chiefdom where solar powered electric fences and Capsicum fences were implemented, there were few and less intensive incursions. Based on the findings, we suggest development of capacity for local farmers in effective wildlife crop mitigation measures, particularly against African elephants. Future research would require determining uptake by local farmers and efficacy of novel counter-measures. Key words: Wildlife crop raiding, conservation, Luangwa Valley

We tested the widely accepted hypothesis that spotted hyaenas (Crocuta crocuta) are non-selective in their diet. The prey preference of spotted hyaena was studied in the Addo Elephant National Park (AENP), South Africa. Diet (frequency of occurrence of prey items in the diet) was quantified through the analysis of 55 scats, and compared with available prey. A combination of large- and medium-sized mammals (buffalo (Syncerus caffer), red hartebeest (Alcelaphus buselaphus) and common duiker (Sylvicapra grimmia) were the most preferred prey items. The most abundant species, warthog (Phacochoerus africanus) and kudu (Tragelaphus strepsiceros), were ignored and avoided, respectively. These results show that the assumption that hyaena prey on the most abundant available prey species may be overly simplistic. Predation patterns, such as the ones observed in AENP, may have important ramifications for less common species that are selected by hyaena in small enclosed reserves.

Understanding the dietary composition of large carnivores and how these relate to the availability of suitable habitat and prey is crucial to population management, especially in fenced reserves. This study aimed to determine the current diet of the lion (Panthera leo) in the Karoo National Park and to establish whether prey preference has changed over the 12 years post-introduction. Global positioning system-collar-based kill-site cluster investigations and scat analyses were used to determine contemporary lion diet, while multinomial logistic regressions were used to investigate longitudinal changes in prey preference by comparing a decade of historical kill and aerial census records. Lion (n = 8) collar fixes identified 358 (12%) ‘potential’ kill-site clusters across 2945 discernible clusters over 15 months (i.e. 2021/2022). The subsequent in-field investigation of 227 (63%) ‘potential’ kill sites yielded 144 (63%) and 103 (45%) independent lion kill and scat samples, respectively. While these two methods offered different sampling advantages, both provided sufficient data to show lion preference for greater kudu (Tragelaphus strepsiceros), common eland (Tragelaphus oryx) and red hartebeest (Alcelaphus buselaphus caama). Other prey species included gemsbok (Oryx gazella), springbuck (Antidorcas marsupialis), common duiker (Sylvicapra grimmia) and mountain zebra (Equus zebra). Historical carcass records (n = 1035, = 89.6 ± 13.8 Standard Error [SE] per annum), since the reintroduction of lions in 2010, indicate no significant change in dietary composition over time (Χ2 = 1.98, df = 5, p = 0.85), when controlling for lion population size, despite post-introduction acclimation with substantial inter-annual variability in rainfall and prey availability. Conservation implications: Understanding dietary changes in response to systemic disturbances is crucial to ensuring that lions are ethically and sustainably managed for their ecological efficacy in fenced metapopulations. With no significant change in hunting behaviour, management concerns are unlikely to be driven by reduced prey suitability or availability.

Little work has been conducted on the helminth parasites of artiodactylids in the northern and western parts of the Limpopo province, which is considerably drier than the rest of the province. The aim of this study was to determine the kinds and numbers of helminth that occur in different wildlife hosts in the area as well as whether any zoonotic helminths were present. Ten impalas (Aepyceros melampus), eight kudus (Tragelaphus strepsiceros), four blue wildebeest (Connochaetes taurinus), two black wildebeest (Connochaetes gnou), three gemsbok (Oryx gazella), one nyala (Tragelaphus angasii), one bushbuck (Tragelaphus scriptus), one waterbuck (Kobus ellipsiprymnus), six warthogs (Phacochoerus aethiopicus) and a single bushpig (Potamochoerus porcus) were sampled from various localities in the semi-arid northern and western areas of the Limpopo province. New host-parasite associations included Trichostrongylus deflexus from blue wildebeest, Agriostomum gorgonis from black wildebeest, Stilesia globipunctata from the waterbuck and Fasciola hepatica in a kudu. The mean helminth burden, including extra-gastrointestinal helminths, was 592 in impalas, 407 in kudus and blue wildebeest, 588 in black wildebeest, 184 in gemsbok, and 2150 in the waterbuck. Excluding Probstmayria vivipara, the mean helminth burden in warthogs was 2228 and the total nematode burden in the bushpig was 80. The total burdens and species richness of the helminths in this study were consistently low when compared with similar studies on the same species in areas with higher rainfall. This has practical implications when animals are translocated to areas with higher rainfall and higher prevalence of helminths.

A study on the seasonal variation in population structure of seven (7) ungulate species, African buffalo (Syncerus caffer), eland (Tragelaphus oryx), giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis), oryx (Oryx gazella), sable (Hippotragus niger), roan antelope (Hippotragus equinus) and the greater kudu (Tragelaphus strepsiceros) was carried out using the field census approach during the wet (February– April) and dry (July–September) season, and a water hole census (September) at seven waterholes in the Waterberg National Park, Namibia. Male warthog, oryx and black rhino on average comprised about 40 % of the population, whereas male sable, roan antelope, eland and buffalo comprised 30 % of the population. Male kudu and male white rhino comprised 20 % of the sex structure of the population, whereas male giraffe comprised more than 50 % of population. Age structure was dominated by adults, with 60 % of the total population in warthog, sable, eland and the white rhino, and 70 % in kudu, roan, buffalo, giraffe and black rhino on average. Oryx had the highest number of adults, with only 10 % of the population comprised of juveniles. Larger herds were observed during the wet season and smaller herds during the dry season. Animals were observed more abundantly in three of the vegetation types (Terminalia sericea — Melhania acuminata vegetation, Terminalia sericea — Thesium megalocarpum, Terminalia sericea — Blepharis integrifolia), with lower abundances in the rock-inhabiting Peltophorum africanum during both seasons.

An improved understanding of reproductive physiology in nondomestic bovids is necessary for the development of assisted reproductive technologies (ARTs) for use in the conservation of endangered bovids. In this study, epididymal spermatozoa were recovered from blesbok (Damaliscus dorcas phillipsi), African buffalo (Syncerus caffer), springbok (Antidorcas marsupialis), and black wildebeest (Connochaetes gnou) following organized culls in South Africa. Our objectives were 1) to characterize the quality of epididymal spermatozoa, 2) evaluate the effectiveness of a cryopreservation protocol, and 3) compare postthaw sperm longevity (motility, viability, and acrosomal integrity) and functionality in two culture media with two capacitation reagents (caffeine and heparin). Following recovery, spermatozoa were diluted in EQ extender, slow-cooled, and frozen in the presence of 5% glycerol. Thawed spermatozoa were separated on a Percoll gradient and diluted in fertilization media (SOF for fertilization [SOFfert]; 0.6% BSA, 0.0 mM glucose, 25.0 mM NaHCO(3)) or modified SOFfert (1.2% BSA, 1.5 mM glucose, 37.0 mM NaHCO(3)) and either heparin or caffeine, and incubated for 6 h. Spermatozoa from these species maintained an average of 64% initial motility after thawing. Incubation medium and capacitation reagent had species-specific effects on the motility, viability, and acrosomal integrity of spermatozoa, suggesting ART procedures need to be optimized for each species. Springbok spermatozoa were also shown to be competent for in vitro fertilization. Information from this study concerning sperm physiology in blesbok, African buffalo, springbok, and black wildebeest will be useful in the development of ART for the conservation of these and other species of bovids.

In fenced protected areas with limited opportunities to disperse, resources and constraints vary in space and time, affecting herbivore behaviour. The distribution, availability and quality of resources, burnt areas, and potential inter-specific competition all play a role in sustaining populations of large sympatric African herbivores. We investigated the role of resources, constraints and interspecific relationships on habitat use by three ruminants – black and blue wildebeest (Connochaetes gnou, C. taurinus) and red hartebeest (Alcelaphus buselaphus), and a non-ruminant, plains zebra (Equus quagga), across seasons and in different landscape types in a South African reserve. Black wildebeest, blue wildebeest and red hartebeest preferred the open grassland landscape, with homogeneous vegetation, while zebra favoured the wooded grassland landscape, with more heterogeneous vegetation. Burnt areas and vegetation greenness were important for all species, while elevation represented a constraint for black wildebeest only. The presence/absence of other species was important in shaping landscape use for black and blue wildebeest, and this suggests the possibility of competition. Our findings confirm the importance of heterogeneity and, in particular, the important role of a planned burning regime in maintaining such heterogeneity to sustain multi-species herbivore assemblages in small fenced nature reserves, where competition might arise between species using similar resources.

Brucellosis is a globally significant zoonotic disease, yet its ecology in wildlife remains poorly understood. In this study, we investigated the circulation of Brucella spp. in a wide range of wild mammals from multiple protected areas in South Africa. Organ and serum samples from 722 animals representing 23 species were analyzed employing a conservative diagnostic strategy, combining serology (rose bengal test confirmed by indirect ELISA) and four PCR-based assays in series, to maximize specificity and interpretative solidity. Molecular detection revealed Brucella spp. DNA in several atypical host species, including plains zebra, hippopotamus, African elephant, giraffe, warthog, cheetah, and African wild dog, expanding the known host range. In Greater Kruger National Park, African buffalo exhibited high seroprevalence (24/106; 23%, CI: 15–32%) and even higher molecular prevalence (29/57; 51%, CI: 37–64%), supporting their role as a primary wildlife reservoir for B. abortus in the region. One B. abortus isolate cultured from the spleen of a zebra and characterized by multiloci variable number of tandem repeat analysis (MLVA) showed genetic relatedness to South African buffalo and South American cattle strains. Co-infections with B. abortus and B. melitensis were identified in 17 animals across seven species. Notably, B. melitensis was detected in species (elephant, hippopotamus, zebra) not typically associated with small ruminants, suggesting complex interspecies transmission dynamics. Our findings underscore the limitations of serological testing and highligts the value of molecular diagnostics in understanding the epidemiology of Brucella spp. in South Africa. The detection of B. abortus and/or B. melitensis DNA in a range of wildlife species, including carnivores and megaherbivores, emphasises the need for integrated One Health surveillance approaches to enhance understanding of the disease’s life cycle and transmission dynamics.

BackgroundTo study the role of African buffalos (Syncerus caffer) in the maintenance of foot-and-mouth disease in Uganda, serum samples were collected from 207 African buffalos, 21 impalas (Aepyceros melampus), 1 giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis), 1 common eland (Taurotragus oryx), 7 hartebeests (Alcelaphus buselaphus) and 5 waterbucks (Kobus ellipsiprymnus) from four major National Parks in Uganda between 2005 and 2008. Serum samples were screened to detect antibodies against foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) non-structural proteins (NSP) using the Ceditest® FMDV NS ELISA. Solid Phase Blocking ELISAs (SPBE) were used to determine the serotype-specificity of antibodies against the seven serotypes of FMDV among the positive samples. Virus isolation and sequencing were undertaken to identify circulating viruses and determine relatedness between them.ResultsAmong the buffalo samples tested, 85% (95% CI = 80-90%) were positive for antibodies against FMDV non-structural proteins while one hartebeest sample out of seven (14.3%; 95% CI = -11.6-40.2%) was the only positive from 35 other wildlife samples from a variety of different species. In the buffalo, high serotype-specific antibody titres (≥ 80) were found against serotypes O (7/27 samples), SAT 1 (23/29 samples), SAT 2 (18/32 samples) and SAT 3 (16/30 samples). Among the samples titrated for antibodies against the four serotypes O, SAT 1, SAT 2 and SAT 3, 17/22 (77%; CI = 59.4-94.6%) had high titres against at least two serotypes.FMDV isolates of serotypes SAT 1 (1 sample) and SAT 2 (2 samples) were obtained from buffalo probang samples collected in Queen Elizabeth National Park (QENP) in 2007. Sequence analysis and comparison of VP1 coding sequences showed that the SAT 1 isolate belonged to topotype IV while the SAT 2 isolates belonged to different lineages within the East African topotype X.ConclusionsConsistent detection of high antibody titres in buffalos supports the view that African buffalos play an important role in the maintenance of FMDV infection within National Parks in Uganda. Both SAT 1 and SAT 2 viruses were isolated, and serological data indicate that it is also likely that FMDV serotypes O and SAT 3 may be present in the buffalo population. Detailed studies should be undertaken to define further the role of wildlife in the epidemiology of FMDV in East Africa.

Since 1986, scrapie-like spongiform encephalopathy has been diagnosed in 19 captive wild animals of eight species at or from eight zoological collections in the British Isles. The affected animals have comprised members of the family Bovidae: one nyala (Tragelaphus angasi), four eland (Taurotragus oryx), and six greater kudu (Tragelaphus strepsiceros), one gemsbok (Oryx gazella), one Arabian oryx (Oryx leucoryx), and one scimitar-horned oryx (Oryx dammah), and members of the family Felidae: four cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) and one puma (Felis concolor). In addition, three cases of a spongiform encephalopathy of unknown aetiology have been reported in ostriches (Struthio camellus) from two zoos in north west Germany. Three features suggest that some of these cases may have been caused by the agent of bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE). First, they have been temporally and geographically coincident with the BSE epidemic. Secondly, in all the ungulates for which details are available, it is possible that either the affected animal itself, or the herd into which it was born or moved, had been exposed to proprietary feeds containing ruminant-derived protein or other potentially contaminated material, and all the carnivores had been fed parts of cattle carcases judged unfit for human consumption. Thirdly, the pathological results of inoculating mice with a homogenate of fixed brain tissue from the nyala and from one greater kudu were similar to the results of inoculating mice with BSE brain tissue.

Top-order carnivores are naturally returning, or are being reintroduced, in a number of places where they have previously been extirpated. To explore how prey species adjust their antipredator behavior in response to these predators, we measured giving-up densities (GUDs) in experimental feeding patches and time spent vigilant for greater kudu (Tragelaphus strepsiceros), sable antelope (Hippotragus niger), and warthogs (Phacochoerus africanus) before and after an introduction of wild dogs (Lycaon pictus). Before the introduction, the only predators in the system were cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus). After the release, none of the prey species changed their microhabitat preference, in that they all preferred open grasslands to mixed tree and bush-clumps and bush-clumps. However, kudu and sable fed more intensively (i.e., achieved lower GUDs) and had lower vigilance in open grasslands, while reducing their feeding effort (i.e., higher GUDs) and increasing their vigilance near denser vegetation. When the wild dogs denned in the study site, potentially increasing contact with the prey species, the time kudu spent vigilant and their GUDs increased significantly across all patches, and continued to increase over time. In contrast, sable and warthogs stopped feeding from the experimental patches altogether during this period. The change in feeding intensity and vigilance levels by kudu likely reflected an additive antipredator response to both cheetahs and wild dogs, whereas sable and warthogs only responded to the increased risk from the wild dogs. Our results indicate that the addition of wild dogs influenced the foraging-safety trade-off for the 3 prey species, but that the antipredator behaviors utilized by these species to mitigate predation risk varied within the newly established 2-predator system.

The cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) is a vulnerable species, with estimates of only 6700 animals left in the wild. Namibia, an anthrax-endemic country, is home to the world's largest and most viable free-ranging population (~3000 animals), which predominantly resides on unprotected private farmlands (Durant, 2015). For over 170 years, anthrax has been reported in African wildlife species with sporadic outbreaks across Namibia (Beyer et al., 2012). Anthrax is regularly reported from zebra (Equus quagga), hartebeest (Alcelaphus buselaphus), springbok (Antidorcas marsupialis) and kudu (Tragelaphus strepsiceros) (Turner et al., 2014; Wafula, Patrick & Charles, 2007); all cheetah prey species. Anthrax epidemics occur annually in Namibia's Etosha National Park (ENP), whereas the establishment of a government mandated livestock vaccination programme in 1973 reduced the occurrence of anthrax on the surrounding farmlands (Bellanet al., 2012; Schneider, 1994; Turner et al., 2013). However, sporadic epidemics still occur on private farmlands throughout Namibia (Shaanika, 2013).

The importance of borehole water and lick sites to Kalahari ungulates

Bluetongue precipitating antibody was demonstrated in sera of cattle, camels, sheep, goats and seven game species. Of the domestic species the percentage of sera positive were; cattle 92%, camels 81%, goats 83% and sheep 36%. Sheep sera, unlike those of other domestic species, varied greatly from area to area in the percentage positive. Seroconversions were recorded in adult sheep between September and April. In adult cattle there was a gradual decline in the percentage positive with increasing age. Positive reactions were recorded in the following game species: impala (Aepyceros melampus), lechwe (Kobus leche), kudu (Tragelaphus strepsiceros), blue wildebeest (Connochaetes taurinus), gemsbok (Oryx gazella), springbok (Antidorcas marsupialis) and tsessebe (Damaliscus lunatus).