Why do objects appear enlarged under water?

Abstract

Objects appear enlarged in water by less than the 4/3 angular magnification. They usually appear beyond their optical distance and slightly enlarged in linear size, but not in accordance with size-distance invariance (SDI). We investigated whether misperceptions of angular size could explain the discrepancies. Twenty observers viewed targets of various sizes and distances within transparent tanks 40 cm long containing air or water. They judged distance by hidden reaching, and linear or angular size by adjusting the size of a target in air at a further distance. Matched distance was close to physical distance in air and optical distance in water. All size matches were close to true linear size, and were larger in water than in air. Angular size matches were much too small to explain departures from SDI. Size perception under water is best explained by incomplete adaptation to optical distortion, and by the use of various size cues.