When Will Employees Voice Up? Leader-Member Exchange Similarity and Leader Group Prototypicality

I measured social loafing as perceived by leaders and members independently, and assessed the effect of each party's perception of members' social loafing on the leader–member exchange relationship, in-role performance, organizational citizenship behavior, and knowledge-sharing behavior. Participants were 333 leader–member dyads from 12 organizations in South Korea, and data were collected in two waves. I performed polynomial regression and response surface analyses and tested the mediating effect of leader–member exchange. As hypothesized, perceived social loafing congruence had a direct effect on leader–member exchange, and an indirect effect via leader–member exchange on in-role performance, organizational citizenship behavior, and knowledge-sharing behavior. Theoretical and practical implications of congruence in perceptions of social loafing are discussed.

PurposeThe purpose of this study is to address the construction of trust in leader member exchange (LMX) relationships as a multidimensional phenomenon and identify the importance of emotional and collective factors contributing to this phenomenon.Design/methodology/approachTen health care professionals (five leaders and five members) were interviewed to subject to qualitative thematic analysis.FindingsFour main themes in the data were identified (work roles, collectivity, interaction and participation) and linked to two main elements of LMX trust relations: core and contextual. The results extend understanding of the construction and maintenance of trust in LMX relationships, indicating that it is a more complex and socially constructed phenomenon than previously described.Research limitations/implicationsDespite identified limitations of the study (the small amount of empirical material, interpretive research method and purposive sampling of participants), the findings reveal that constructing trust in LMX relationships is more multidimensional than generally portrayed in traditional LMX theory and its three-stage continuum. This study suggests that a broader perspective should be adopted in LMX research, treating it not only as a collective phenomenon but also considering leaders and members as emotional individuals.Practical implicationsUnderstanding the multidimensional nature of LMX relationships is helpful for developing interpersonal relationships in organizations and leadership practices through recognition of the importance of the transparency, practices and adequacy of mutual interaction. The results presented here may contribute to such understanding and help leaders to relate to members as both subjective individuals and parts of a complex social network. The results may also increase members' awareness of possible ways that they can promote the development of good LMX relationships in organizations.Originality/valueThe novelty of the study relates to the identification of the collective, emotional and multidimensional nature of LMX relationships.

Organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) may increase service quality. In contrast, counterproductive work behavior (CWB) may undermine patient safety. Efforts to increase OCB and reduce CWB rely on a good understanding of their antecedents, yet there is a lack of research in health care to inform such endeavors. The aim of this study was to investigate the role of leadership, specifically leader-member exchange (LMX), in reducing CWB and increasing OCB in health care teams. Team survey data were collected from 75 teams in U.S. health services organizations. Polynomial regression and response surface analysis was used to investigate our hypotheses. For OCB, the response surface along the line of incongruence (a3) was positive and significant, and for CWB, a3 was negative and significant. The results of polynomial regression and response surface analysis indicate that OCB increases when LMX quality is high and that LMX differentiation is comparatively lower. In contrast, CWB increases when LMX differentiation is high, whereas LMX quality is lower. These findings provide useful suggestions to promote valuable extra-role behaviors in health care teams. Health care team leaders should aim to develop strong exchange relationships with all members if they wish to increase citizenship behavior and decrease counterproductive behavior. Building positive exchange relationships with only a few team members is likely to undermine citizenship behavior and increase counterproductive behavior.

SummaryDrawing from social/political influence, leader–member exchange (LMX), and social comparison theories, the present two‐study investigation examines three levels of LMX differentiation (i.e., individual‐level, meso‐level, and group‐level LMX differentiation) and further tests a model of the joint effects of political skill and LMX differentiation on LMX, relative LMX, and employee work outcomes. In Study 1, we used data from 231 employees and found support for the interactive effect of political skill and individual perceptions of LMX differentiation on LMX quality. We also found partial support for the moderating role of individual‐level LMX differentiation on the indirect effects of political skill on self‐rated task performance and job satisfaction via LMX. In Study 2, we used data from 185 supervisor–subordinate dyads and examined both meso‐level and group‐level LMX differentiation via a multilevel moderated mediation model. Results supported the moderating role of group‐level LMX differentiation and group mean LMX on the indirect effects of political skill on supervisor‐rated task performance and contextual performance/citizenship behavior as well as job satisfaction via relative LMX. Overall, the results suggest that politically skilled employees reap the benefits of LMX differentiation, as they enjoy higher absolute LMX and relative (i.e., to their peers) LMX quality. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Since the relationship between leaders and subordinates has important implications for organizations, exploring how high-quality leader–member exchange (LMX) relationships develop over time is a critical research objective. However, LMX research has essentially focused on leader-centric approaches to describe how leaders develop differential relationships with subordinates and has devoted little attention to the influence of subordinate characteristics. This study contends that subordinates’ individual differences may act as drivers of LMX relationships. Specifically, we posited that individuals with an internal work locus of control, owing to their sense of control over the work environment, are more prone to develop high LMX relationships over time. Moreover, we expected this effect to be enhanced when these individuals are given clear expectations about their work role because such conditions would ease their sense of agency. Further, we suggested that these effects may partly depend on the dimension of LMX (i.e., affect, loyalty, contribution, and professional respect) under consideration. We argued that the effect of internal work locus of control would generalize to all LMX dimensions but that its interaction with role clarity would primarily impact the loyalty and contribution dimensions of LMX as their behavioral orientation would result in valued outcomes for internals. Data were collected through questionnaires among a sample of 424 employees working in various industries. Through a two-wave study and controlling for the autoregressive effects of LMX, subordinates’ internal work locus of control was found to enhance LMX relationships over time. Using a multidimensional approach to LMX, our results further show that the effect of internal work locus of control generalized to all dimensions of LMX. Using a contextualized view of the development of LMX, we also found that role clarity moderated the positive relationship between internal work locus of control and LMX over time such that the relationship was stronger when role clarity was high. However, from a dimensional perspective, role clarity only accentuated the relationship between work locus of control and LMX’s loyalty dimension. The implications of these findings for LMX research are discussed.

Based on the social-cognitive model of transference, this paper discusses the transference effect of the leader-member exchange (LMX) relationship between the follower and the previous leader. The results show that the LMX between follower and the previous leader influences the follower's LMX with the current leader. The study identifies two moderators: both the traits difference between the previous leader and the current leader and the follower's individual transition resistance negatively moderate the main effect between the previous LMX and the current LMX.

SummaryAccording to leader–member exchange (LMX) theory, leaders develop different quality relationships with followers in their team (termed LMX differentiation). An important theoretical question concerns how different LMX relationships within a team affect followers' work outcomes. This paper provides a critical review of the concept of LMX differentiation. We propose that the LMX differentiation process leads to patterns of LMX relationships that can be captured by 3 properties (central tendency, variation, and relative position). We describe a taxonomy illustrating the different ways these properties have been conceptualized and measured. We identify 2 approaches to LMX differentiation as being a “perspective of the team” (that are shared perceptions amongst team members) or a “perspective of the follower” (subjective perceptions unique to each follower). These perspectives lead to different types of measures that predict different outcomes at the individual and team levels. We describe theoretical models employed to explain the effects of LMX differentiation (justice, social comparison, and social identity theories). Generally, the lower the within‐team variation in LMX or the more a team member's LMX is higher than the mean team LMX, the better are the work outcomes, but many moderators condition these effects. Finally, we identify some key areas for future research.

In this review, we address inconsistencies and a lack of clarity in the study of leader-member exchange (LMX) differentiation and group outcomes. We do so by drawing on another highly visible group dispersion literature in the management domain, group diversity, based on the recognition that LMX quality is a characteristic on which group members vary. Utilizing insights from Harrison and Klein’s typology of group diversity constructs, we introduce a framework that specifies the meaning and shape of three variations of differentiated leader-member relationships in groups and connects each construct with implications in terms of theorizing and measurement. Specifically, our framework conceptualizes LMX differentiation as LMX separation (dispersion in LMX relationships as disagreement or opposition regarding an opinion, perception, or position), LMX variety (dispersion in LMX relationships as distinctiveness in kind, source, or category), and LMX disparity (dispersion in LMX relationships as inequality in concentration of valued social assets or resources). We then apply this framework to conduct a systematic review of the LMX differentiation literature with particular attention to alignment among a study’s descriptions of the construct, application of theory, expected group outcomes, and construct measurement. Finally, we offer recommendations for future research and for applying our framework to enhance reliability, validity, and generalizability in studies of LMX differentiation and group outcomes.

Two field studies (N = 1240 and N = 22021) were conducted to investigate the impact of subordinates’ disability status, type of disability, and self-efficacy on leader-member exchange (LMX) relationships. In study 1, we focused on the interplay of subordinates’ disability status and personal resources (self-efficacy and individual performance) in predicting LMX quality. Contrary to further research, subordinates with disabilities formed no lower-quality LMX relationships with their supervisors in general and the interaction of disability status and personal resources (self-efficacy and individual performance) did not affect LMX quality. However, after analyzing subordinates' disability status, self-efficacy and performance in a three-way-interaction, we found a significant relationship with LMX quality. For employees with disabilities, the combination of high self-efficacy and low performance resulted in the lowest LMX quality, while low self-efficacy and low performance resulted in significantly higher LMX quality. For employees without disabilities, this pattern did not emerge. In study 2, we investigated the interplay of disability type, self-efficacy, and LMX quality. In line with our expectations, we found significant differences between disability types, indicating that employees that have both a physical and a psychological disability form significantly worse LMX relationships with their supervisors than employees without or with just one type of disability. Moreover, we found two significant moderations such that self-efficacy had a stronger impact on LMX quality when a subordinate had a psychological disability, or a combination of disabilities. Theoretical and practical implications of the results are discussed and directions for future research are presented.

Although a great deal of knowledge has accumulated about dyadic relationships (i.e., leader–member exchange (LMX) or team–member exchange (TMX)) within a team, employee behaviours that involve triadic relationships among focal employees, leaders, and teammates have seldom been investigated. Using balance theory, which describes triadic relationships from a power dependence perspective, in the current study, we explore how the interplay of LMX, TMX, and peers’ LMX jointly impacts employees’ feedback‐seeking behaviour (FSB) and subsequent job performance. By conducting a multilevel moderated polynomial regression on three‐wave, multi‐source data from 147 team members and their leaders (from 45 work teams), we found that the incongruence between LMX and TMX facilitates FSB when peers’ LMX or task interdependence is high. We also found an asymmetrical incongruence effect concerning the way in which individuals are more likely to seek feedback when LMX is worse than TMX, compared with when LMX is better than TMX. This differential effect is stronger when peers’ LMX or task interdependence is high. The interplay of LMX, TMX, peers’ LMX, and task interdependence eventually has an indirect effect on job performance through FSB. The results from a follow‐up study of 270 employees from 77 teams further confirm our predictions about the mechanism of balance theory. Specifically, the results indicate that when peers’ LMX is high, the incongruence between LMX and TMX decreases employees’ psychological safety. Practitioner points Our study highlights the importance of studying the triadic (LMX, TMX, and peers’ LMX) rather than dyadic relationships in a work team. This study demonstrates that imbalanced relationship triads can influence employees in a positive way (i.e., motivate employees to conduct more change‐oriented proactive behaviours). Our study’s findings show that feedback‐seeking behaviour is important in promoting job performance when it aims at changing the imbalanced social environment. Our findings suggest practitioners should pay more attention to the role of task interdependence, which changes the power dependence structure of workplace relationships.

The study aims to discover the dynamic and processual nature of a supervisory relationship (here a leader–member exchange) through a novel, theoretical concept termed leader–member exchange breach, and by examining the characteristics of negative exchange interactions within the leader–member exchange relationship. The notion of the leader–member exchange breach is empirically defined through data on 336 responses to open-ended questions on negative interactions between leaders and subordinates, analyzed through qualitative analysis methods. The results of the study raise questions about the complexity of leader–member exchange relationships and show that breaches of the leader–member exchange relationship might lead to a reassessment of the dyadic relationship between leaders and their subordinates, spanning or even breaking the exchange relationships. This study extends current knowledge on leader–member exchange relationships by providing a viewpoint on the leader–member exchange breach that helps explain the processual and dynamic nature of those relationships through interpersonal interactions and exchanges.

This study tested the moderating influence of the strength of social identification with religion on the relationship between similarity and dissimilarity in religious affiliations and the quality of leader-member exchange (LMX) relationships. One thousand five hundred and seventeen employed people, residing in India, responded to a survey from a subordinate perspective. The results of the survey provided support for the moderating influence of the strength of social identification with religion and further showed that at low levels of identification, the quality of the relationship was better in different-religion dyads than in samereligion ones. Hence the main implication is that studies have to consider moderators in examining the influence of demographic similarities/dissimilarities on LMX relationships as they can tease out the conditions under which the relationships hold.

PurposeClinician turnover in mental health settings impacts service quality, including availability and delivery of evidence-based practices. Leadership is associated with organizational climate, team functioning and clinician turnover intentions (TI). This study examines leader–member exchange (LMX), reflecting the relationship between a supervisor and each supervisee, using mean team LMX, dispersion of individual clinician ratings compared to team members (i.e. relative LMX) and team level variability (i.e. LMX differentiation), in relation to organizational climate and clinician TI.Design/methodology/approachSurvey data were collected from 363 clinicians, nested in children's mental health agency workgroups, providing county-contracted outpatient services to youth and families. A moderated mediation path analysis examined cross-level associations of leader–member exchange with organizational climate and turnover intentions.FindingsLower relative LMX and greater LMX differentiation were associated with higher clinician TI. Higher team-level demoralizing climate also predicted higher TI. These findings indicate that poorer LMX and more variability in LMX at the team level are related to clinician TI.Originality/valueThis study describes both team- and clinician-level factors on clinician TI. Few studies have examined LMX in mental health, and fewer still have examined relative LMX and LMX differentiation associations with organizational climate and TI. These findings highlight the importance of leader–follower relationships and organizational climate and their associations with clinician TIs. Mental health service systems and organizations can address these issues through fostering more positive supervisor–supervisee relationships.

Purpose– With the continued expansion of Western organisations and their leadership personnel and practices across national boundaries there is a need for continued critical examination of assumptions about the transferability of these practices into other cultural settings. The purpose of this paper is to focus on one such practice, delegation, and explores its relationship to leader-member exchange (LMX) relationships and work outcomes in a non-Western organisation.Design/methodology/approach– Participants (186) were Chinese subordinate managers in a large transport company in Hong Kong. Data were collected via questionnaire and analysed using a path-analytic model.Findings– The data supported a direct and indirect path between delegation and job satisfaction and an indirect path only between delegation and job performance where LMX was the mediating variable. The results highlight the importance of LMX in the delegation-work outcomes relationship.Research limitations/implications– The limitations of using a single site for investigation, cross-sectional data and common method bias are discussed in relation to suggestions for future research.Practical implications– For the company in question, quality LMX relationships are seen as key for improving delegation-work outcome relationships particularly in terms of the potential to “soften” the autonomy requirements of the delegation process for Chinese subordinate managers.Originality/value– This research adds new knowledge to the literature about the conditions under which delegation may be effective in improving subordinate job satisfaction and performance through the agency of enhanced LMX relationships in a Chinese work context.

Prior research on Leader-member Exchange (LMX) has predominantly examined the positive functions of LMX, focusing on perceptions of LMX quality from only one side of the dyad (either that of leader or subordinate). In contrast, research on the downsides of LMX is limited, especially when perceptions of both sides of the dyad are considered. Drawing upon prototype theory (Rosch, 1973) and social exchange theory (Blau, 1964), I develop a theoretical framework to illustrate how high quality LMX may influence strain since features of strong LMX relationships include support seeking from others and support pressure towards other. Such support seeking and support pressure may in turn, lead to support reception (i.e., actual support received) and support provision (i.e., actual support provided) respectively. I furthermore suggest that the positive relationship between support seeking and support reception is moderated by the perceived LMX of the other party in the LMX relationship, such that the relationship is weakened when perceived LMX of the other party in the LMX relationship is low. Finally, I draw on job demands-resources (JD-R) model (Demerouti, Bakker, Nachreiner, & Schaufeli, 2001) and ego depletion theory (Muraven & Baumeister, 2000) to posit how support giving and support receiving behaviors influence one’s resources, and ultimately, one’s experienced strain. Theoretical contributions, practical implications and future research directions are discussed.