When having a job is not enough: poor-quality employment in Egypt, 1988 – 2018

This paper examines the impact of trade openness on job quality through the evolution of the shares of informal and irregular employment in total employment. In fact, Egypt has undertaken several liberalization waves and reforms of the labor market (1998-2012). Moreover, the economy has been subject to several events leading to a severe political instability which in turn affected production, exports, employment and employment conditions. Indeed, informal and irregular employments have exacerbated in the wake of the political turmoil of 2011. Thus, combining a microeconomic dataset (the Egyptian Labor Market Panel Survey) with macroeconomic variables (tariffs), we try to assess to what extent trade reforms affected informal/irregular workers in Egypt. Our main findings show that there is a positive association between tariffs and both informal and irregular employments in Egypt. While the effect on informality is robust, the one on irregularity is not.

EVALUATING EMPLOYMENT POLICY PROGRAMS TO ALLEVIATE THE UNEMPLOYMENT: CASE STUDY OF EGYPT (In Arabic)

PurposeThis paper aims to identify the level of contribution of different levels of education to remaining in unemployment as well as the transition from unemployment to employment in Egypt.Design/methodology/approachIn this paper, transition probabilities matrix differentiated by gender, age groups, educational levels, marital status and place of residence based on worker flows across employment, unemployment and out of labor force states during the period 2012–2018 using Egypt Labor Market Panel Survey of 2018. The results point to the highly static nature of the Egyptian labor market. Employment and the out of labor force states are the least mobile among labor market states. This is because employment state is very desirable and the out of labor force is the largest labor market states, especially for females. Also, this study examines the impact of different educational levels separately on remaining in unemployment and transition from unemployment to employment state using eight binary logistic regression models.FindingsThe main results of transitions from unemployment to employment are relatively large for males, elder-age, uneducated workers as well as workers who are not married and urban residents, and the results of the logistic regression models consistent with the transition probabilities matrix results, except for few cases. Based on the above findings, there is enough evidence to accept the null hypothesis that no education has a positive significant impact to transition unemployed individuals from unemployment to employment, while less than intermediate as well as higher education have a negative significant impact to transition unemployed individuals from unemployment to employment.Originality/valueThis paper proposes to address the problem of the unemployment among highly educated which is much higher compared with illiterates and try to understand the impact of different levels of education separately on the transition from unemployment to employment, to help the policymakers to eradicate the gap between education and the demand of the labor market in Egypt.

1. The Evolution of Labor Supply and Unemployment in the Egyptian Economy: 1988-2012 2. The Structure and Evolution of Employment in Egypt: 1998-2012 3. Wages and Inequality in the Egyptian Labor Market in an Era of Financial Crisis and Revolution 4. Patterns of Labor Market Insertion in Egypt, 1998-2012 5. Determinants of Unemployment Duration 6. Young People's Job Aspirations in Egypt and the Continued Preference for a Government Job 7. Education in Egypt: Improvements in Attainment, Problems with Quality and Inequality 8. Women's Participation in the Egyptian Labor Market: 1998-2012 9. Changes in the Institution of Marriage in Egypt: 1998-2012 10. Micro and Small Household Enterprises in Egypt: Potential for Growth and Employment Generation 11. Through the Keyhole: International Migration in Egypt 12. Job Accession, Separation and Mobility in the Egyptian Labor Market over the Past Decade 13. Duration to Coverage: Dynamics of Access to Social Security on the Egyptian Labor Market during the 1998-2012 Period

1. The Evolution of Labor Supply and Unemployment in the Egyptian Economy: 1988-2012 2. The Structure and Evolution of Employment in Egypt: 1998-2012 3. Wages and Inequality in the Egyptian Labor Market in an Era of Financial Crisis and Revolution 4. Patterns of Labor Market Insertion in Egypt, 1998-2012 5. Determinants of Unemployment Duration 6. Young People's Job Aspirations in Egypt and the Continued Preference for a Government Job 7. Education in Egypt: Improvements in Attainment, Problems with Quality and Inequality 8. Women's Participation in the Egyptian Labor Market: 1998-2012 9. Changes in the Institution of Marriage in Egypt: 1998-2012 10. Micro and Small Household Enterprises in Egypt: Potential for Growth and Employment Generation 11. Through the Keyhole: International Migration in Egypt 12. Job Accession, Separation and Mobility in the Egyptian Labor Market over the Past Decade 13. Duration to Coverage: Dynamics of Access to Social Security on the Egyptian Labor Market during the 1998-2012 Period

PurposeThis research paper aims to develop a comprehensive tourism satellite account‐human resource module (TSA‐HRM) which can complement and enhance the analytical capacity provided by the TSA, allowing for a broader insight into tourism's role in the economy, especially that of Egypt.Design/methodology/approachThe objectives have been achieved through reviewing the literature in the fields of tourism satellite account (TSA) and its handling of tourism employment. To answer the research questions, one strategy and one method associated with the qualitative approach are used. The strategy refers to the case study, while the method refers to participant observation. An in‐depth analysis of the TSA project in Egypt was performed using the Data Quality Assessment Framework (DQAF) introduced by the International Monetary Fund.FindingsThe results indicate that statistics on tourism‐related employment in Egypt are usually fragmented, difficult to compare and often lack quality, credibility and reliability. Thus Egypt is in need of a way to improve tourism labor market statistics. However, the process of assessment of the TSA project in Egypt shows that Egypt has good experience in implementing the TSA system. The application of the TSA in Egypt at this high level will create a new horizon for improving the quality of tourism employment statistics.Research limitations/implicationsAt the time of the research Egypt was in the process of constructing its first TSA, and this of course is considered one of the limitations. Since the introduction of TSA to the Egyptian tourism industry in 2009, the statistical system of tourism has made a considerable contribution to improve the quality of data, based on evaluating some of the DQAF criteria, but there are no results so far. The present situation caused the study to fall within the theoretical framework, without producing any statistics on tourism employment in Egypt according to the proposed TSA‐HRM.Practical implicationsThe model proposed will provide detailed data about employment, labor or human resource issues related to tourism in the Egyptian economy, which provides a useful resource for planning policy and decision making.Originality/valueConsidering the research findings, the study developed a comprehensive quantitative (monetary and non‐monetary) and qualitative tourism human resources module of tourism satellite account to extend the analytical capacity of the TSA as well as trace most issues relevant to the tourism labor market in Egypt.

This paper proposes an empirical investigation of the effect of trade liberalisation on informal employment in Egypt. The effect of trade liberalisation on the informal sector has been widely discussed at both empirical and public policy levels but was never tested empirically in Egypt. Thus, combining a microeconomic data set (the Egyptian Labor Market Panel Survey) with macroeconomic variables (tariffs), we try to assess to what extent trade reforms affected informal workers in Egypt. Our main findings show that trade liberalisation has reduced informal employment in Egypt. Such results remain unchanged under different robust testings.

Purpose This study examines the effect of digital skills on wages and employment in Egypt, with particular focus on gender differences. Design/methodology/approach The study uses the 2023 wave of the Egyptian Labor Market Panel Survey (ELMPS). Our empirical methodology uses several econometric techniques, including Mincer equations, quantile regressions, Heckman and Blau et al. (2024) selection models. We also do robustness checks to address endogeneity concerns. Findings This paper has three main findings: (1) Digital skills improve labor market outcomes in Egypt, with positive effects on wages and employment probability for workers. (2) Women get higher returns from digital skills than men. In wage equations, the digital skills premium for women is approximately 1.5 times greater compared to men. This effect is even more important for women in employment probability models. (3) These gender differences occur through several mechanisms. Conspicuously, digital skills help women access formal employment and improve their chances in the public sector. It also enhances their access to high-skill occupations. Originality/value This study provides novel evidence on the wage and employment returns to digital skills by gender in a developing economy characterized by occupational segregation and underrepresentation of women.

Can activation programs be considered a ‘magic wand’ that triggers a change of incentives, with little or no costs, and produces real gains in terms of improved job-finding rates? The paper reviews the literature on the experience of OECD countries with such programs in five areas: strengthening job-search requirements, compulsory participation in active labor market programs, stricter monitoring, and imposing sanctions. Programs are judged in terms of duration of unemployment, probability of finding a job, and post-unemployment outcomes such as the level of wages and quality of jobs. Our review finds strong evidence that activation programs can increase the job-finding rates of individuals receiving unemployment or social assistance benefits. At the same time, it cautions that programs may have adverse side effects, ranging from increased exits into inactivity to lower quality of post-unemployment jobs, as well as negative indirect effects on the job prospects of non-participants.

Despite decades of increased access to education, women’s conspicuous absence from the labour market in Egypt, and the Middle East in general, has been the focus of a large body of research. These studies have often focused on the role of culture and the regional political economy trajectory in curbing the potential of women’s participation in the labour market. This study seeks to address the interplay of social policies, family and culture in defining women’s employment decisions in Egypt. Building on the stock of evidence on women’s employment in Egypt, this study provides qualitative data through in-depth interviews with both married and unmarried working women in Egypt to explicate this process. In their own voices, the study documents the torrent of challenges educated women face as they venture into the labour market. Single women highlighted job scarcity and job quality challenges pertaining to low pay, long hours, informality, and workplace suitability to gender norms as key challenges. For married working women, the conditions of the work domain are dwarfed by the other challenges of time deprivation and weak family and social support. The paper highlights women’s calculated and aptly negotiated decisions to either work or opt out of the labour market within this complex setting. The analysis emphasises the role of social policies in the domains of employment, social security, housing and education in this process; and how inhospitable working conditions and compromised support often make opting out a sensible decision. This, in turn, augments regressive values of female domesticity. The paper urges serious discussion of women’s employment as an area for policy action not just culture.

Social Policy and Employment Chapter of EU Acquis has recently been continuing to be an important subject. Social Policy and Employment is related closely with improving working conditions and socio-economic factors. Socio-economic factors and good working conditions in a country determines women participation in labour force and job quality. In this context, job quality and representation of women in labour force has been important subjects of social policy for a while. Within this scope this study explores how job quality effects participation of women in labour force by comparing Sweden and Turkey. Additionally, it investigates whether low job quality leads to underrepresentation of women in labour force. Document analysis and secondary sources are used in this qualitative research. The results show that the determinants of job quality in this study effects Swedish and Turkish women’s representation in labour force. Moreover, low job quality leads to underrepresentation of women in labour force.

During the 1980's employment grew rapidly in the United States, prompting many analysts to label the U.S. economy the great American job machine. But while aggregate employment increased rapidly during the 1980's, many did not benefit from the expansion. Among less educated prime-age males, unemployment rates rose and labor force participation rates declined sharply. Moreover, although job growth was high, many argued that the quality of American jobs as measured by wages, benefits, and job security deteriorated. The decline of jobs in the high-paying manufacturing sector and the growth of jobs in the low-paying services sector, the growth in part-time and temporary employment, and the general decline in real wages among less-educated, less-skilled workers have been presented as evidence of an erosion in job quality. The issue of job growth and job quality in the American economy has sparked extensive debate among policymakers and academics over the last decade. The aim of this paper is to critically examine the evidence on job growth and on wages and other indicators of job quality in the U.S. economy during the 1980's and 1990's. To place the American experience in perspective, selected comparisons are made to the experiences in other industrialized countries.

The provision of high-quality jobs is an important component of the policy strategy of organisations such as the ILO, the OECD and the European Union. Job quality can have important implications for employee well-being, as well as being an important component of a well-functioning and productive economy. When considering job quality, the level of pay is often the primary consideration. However, job quality is a multidimensional concept that goes beyond pay, to include factors such as job security, flexibility, union membership, contract type, provision of training, physical risk, and general working conditions. Capturing the multidimensional aspects of job quality is difficult as many surveys do not capture the full range of job quality indicators. In this research, we combine three different datasets to examine the job quality of minimum wage workers in Ireland relative to higher paid workers across a range of dimensions. The datasets we use include the 2022 Irish Labour Force Survey, the 2015 European Working Conditions Survey, and the 2014 European Skills and Jobs Survey. As we are focused on minimum wage employment, which by definition are low-paying jobs, we focus on aspects of job quality beyond remuneration. We find that minimum wage employees are approximately 10 percentage points more likely than higher paid employees to fear job loss and to hold temporary employment contracts, and approximately 5 percentage points more likely than higher paid employees to want to work more hours than they currently do. Our results also show that minimum wage employees are approximately 20 percentage points less likely to be members of a trade union. Minimum wage employees also appear to have less flexibility in their jobs, as we find that they are 20 percentage points less likely to be able to work from home. Compared to higher paid workers, minimum wage employees are also found to work longer shifts (more than ten hours) that coincide with more unsocial times (Saturdays and Sundays). They are also 13 percentage points more likely to work in jobs in which their skills are underutilised. This is reflected in the fact that minimum wage employees also report lower job complexity and lower levels of computer usage compared to higher paid employees, and are less likely to receive training in their jobs. However, while most job quality indicators show that minimum wage jobs tend to be lower quality, there are three exceptions. Minimum wage employees are more likely to be in jobs where they have a choice in the colleagues they work Executive summary | vii with and in the hours that they work. In addition, minimum wage employees are more likely to be in jobs where the boss is successful in getting people to work together. In addition to facing low levels of pay, our research indicates that, overall, minimum wage workers may also face less favourable job quality conditions as measured by a variety of factors. This highlights the importance of providing not only a minimum level of pay, but also ensuring a minimum level of acceptable terms and conditions of employment. For many low-paid workers, minimum wage employment may be a relatively short-term stepping-stone to higher pay. However, for others it may be a longer-term arrangement. The combination of low pay and other potentially unfavourable job quality measures is of particular concern for individuals that may be long-term minimum wage employees

This book updates our understanding of how the Egyptian labor market, economy, and society have evolved in the aftermath of the 2011 Arab Spring uprisings, the subsequent political upheaval and substantial economic challenges that followed, and the economic reforms introduced in late 2016. Not only was job creation anemic over the period from 2012 to 2018, but new jobs were also of low-quality, characterized by informality and vulnerability to economic shocks. These challenges pushed many in Egypt, especially the most vulnerable, into a more precarious labor market situation. The book examines the plight of the most vulnerable groups by focusing on the intersection of gender and economic vulnerability in the labor market. With this emphasis on vulnerability and a lens that is sensitive to gender differences and inequities, the contributors to this volume use data from the most recent wave of a unique longitudinal survey to illuminate different aspects of Egyptians’ lives. The aspects they explore include labor supply behavior, the ability to access good quality and well-paying jobs, the evolution of wages and wage inequality, the school-to-work transition of youth, the decline in public sector employment, international and internal migration, the situation of rural women, access to social protection, food security, vulnerability to shocks and coping mechanisms, health status, and access to health care services. These analyses are prescient in understanding the axes of vulnerability in Egyptian society that became all too salient during the COVID-19 pandemic.

This chapter focuses on the consequences of the Great Recession on job quality in Europe. It relies on European survey data (European Working Conditions Survey, Labour Force Survey, EU-SILC). It first shows that on average in the EU there was a marginal decline in job quality between 2005 and 2010 according to the ETUI Job Quality Index. Improvements are visible with regards to working conditions, working-time and work–life balance while involuntary non-standard employment increased and wages displayed a pronounced deterioration. A second step builds on dynamic indicators calculated at the individual level (transitions in terms of job quality between 2007 and 2009), using EU-SILC panel data. It shows that some socioeconomic groups were more affected by decreasing trends in job quality (other things being equal), especially youth, older workers and low-educated workers. In terms of gender, women were more likely than men to become unemployed or inactive over the period. At the same time, comparing national labour market institutions, employment protection legislation (as defined by the OECD) seems to have prevented transitions to non-employment (with no direct effect on job quality) while public expenditure per unemployed slightly reduced the risk of job quality deterioration.