When a Balloon is Enough: An Attention-Based Account of Toys and Games

The article first explains the meaning of aesthetic values in principle, then analyzes Ingarden?s formulation of the problem of aesthetic values starting from the meaning of the aesthetic object, and finally explains the experience of aesthetic value, its place and function in a fully developed aesthetic experience. It is shown that the experience of aesthetic value represents an integral moment of a complete aesthetic experience and that it has two phases. In the first phase of the experience of aesthetic value, the emotional component prevails, in which we find liking, admiration, and delight for the harmonious whole of the qualitative consonance of the (previously constituted) aesthetic object. In the second phase of the aesthetic experience, in which the cognitive component of value assessment prevails, based on the previously constituted and emotionally approved aesthetic object, the work of art and artistic value are conceptually and discursively evaluated. The emotional component of the experience of aesthetic value represents the basic way of approaching aesthetic values, but also the essential core of evaluating artistic value and artwork in art criticism. The experience of aesthetic value is not only one of the indispensable moments of a developed aesthetic experience, but it represents its anchor point that enables a complete concretization of the aesthetic object and a retrospective understanding of the way in which the aesthetic object is based in the work of art.

Šiame straipsnyje analizuojama estetinių vertybių reikšmė Moritzo Geigerio plėtotoje fenomenologinėje estetikoje. Atsigręžimas į estetines vertybes leidžia susitelkti ties pačiu meno kūriniu – estetiniu objektu bei jame glūdinčiomis objektyviomis vertėmis. Estetinės vertybės tampa centrine ašimi, į kurią remiasi kiti svarbūs estetinės patirties dalyviai – menininkas ir žiūrovas. Apžvelgiamas kritikuotinas psichologijos bei meno istorijos požiūris į estetiką: psichologija telkia dėmesį į vidinius estetinėje patirtyje dalyvaujančių subjektų išgyvenimus, o meno istorija į estetinį objektą pirmiausia žvelgia per kintančių aplinkybių prizmę. Geigeris pabrėžia estetinių vertybių objektyvumą – nors suvokiamos iš asmeninės perspektyvos, jos nėra priklausomos nei nuo istorinių laikotarpių kaitos, nei nuo subjektyvių menininko ar žiūrovo estetinę patirtį lydinčių išgyvenimų. Geigerio estetinių vertybių samprata yra palyginama su Maxo Schelerio plėtotomis pamatinėmis vertybių idėjomis bei Nicolai Hartmanno estetinių vertybių teorija.

This chapter discusses the basics of Blaustein’s aesthetics, which is seemingly one of the main fields of his original philosophical project. Some scholars, e.g., Roman Ingarden, Stanisław Pazura, Bohdan Dziemidok, or, more recently, Wioletta Miskiewicz and Zofia Rosińska, have claimed that Blaustein should be regarded first and foremost as an aesthetician. Indeed, aesthetics is not so much the terminus a quo of his philosophy but rather its terminus ad quem. In this regard, in Chap. 4, it was suggested that Blaustein redefined Kazimierz Twardowski’s theory of presentations to address the question of diverse aesthetic experiences. Moreover, Chap. 6 proposed the 1928 book on Husserl as the key to understanding Blaustein’s aesthetic theory, since in this book he argued that sensations are the basis of lived experiences, including aesthetic experiences. On the whole, aesthetics denotes a philosophical theory or theories concerning beauty and, for the most part, art. More specifically, it raises questions about, among other things, aesthetic values, taste, the aesthetic object and its relation to artworks, particular experiences that are described as aesthetic, or the attitude employed in such experiences; finally—starting from Immanuel Kant and his legacy—it asks about aesthetic judgment. Blaustein referred to a variety of traditional aesthetic topics, but all the listed topics were not equally important to him precisely because of the different traditions that inspired him. Whereas the question of aesthetic experience was central in his writings, the problems of aesthetic values or taste were rather marginal. Additionally, the issues of aesthetic objects and the specific attitude are important for understanding his approach. In turn, the topic of aesthetic judgment is simply absent in his writings. This clear shift in focus from beauty (as in the classic definition of aesthetics) and judgment (as in Kant’s philosophy) to an emphasis on experience seemingly followed from Blaustein’s theoretical background. The list of authors to whom he referred in his aesthetic writings is rich and diverse; in addition to Husserl, Ingarden, and Twardowski, he also mentioned, among others, Karl Bühler, Max Dessoir, Moritz Geiger, Karol Irzykowski, Konrad Lange, Zofia Lissa, Alexius Meinong, Stanisław Ossowski, Wilhelm Schapp, Emil Utitz, Johannes Volkelt, Mieczysław Wallis-Walfisz, Stefan Witasek, and Tadeusz Witwicki. More generally, Blaustein’s account of aesthetics was shaped in a critical discussion with different traditions: the Gestaltists (Bühler, Dessoir), German aesthetics (Lange, Utitz, Volkelt), the Graz School (Meinong, Witasek), phenomenology (Geiger, Husserl, Ingarden, Schapp), Polish aesthetics (Irzykowski) and, of course, the Lvov–Warsaw School (Lissa, Ossowski, Twardowski, Wallis-Walfisz, Tadeusz Witwicki). Admittedly, the contexts are varied, but two traditions seemed to be dominant: his references to the Brentanian tradition and the phenomenological heritage. The Brentanian line in his thought leads—through Twardowski and his students—to the theory of presentations as the basis of aesthetics. In turn, the phenomenological inspiration that came from Husserl and Ingarden covers the question of the ways of givenness (Gegebenheitsweisen) of the aesthetic object. Against this background, the aim of the present chapter is to discuss Blaustein’s aesthetics as a descriptive analysis of aesthetic experiences that are correlated with their object or objects. My ultimate task is to present his general model of aesthetic experience. I begin with the question of how Blaustein used descriptive psychology in his aesthetics. Next, I address the problem of understanding aesthetic objects. Before considering whether they are purely intentional or real, I analyze Blaustein’s a few exemplary descriptions of aesthetic experiences. Finally, I examine some detailed problems discussed by Blaustein, including the phenomena of perception, attitudes, the body, intersubjectivity, and judgments. In doing so, I attempt to present a model of aesthetic experience in Blaustein’s philosophy.

Reviewed by: The Aesthetics of Everyday Life Jeffrey Petts The Aesthetics of Everyday Life, edited by Andrew Light and Jonathan M. Smith. New York: Columbia University Press, 2005, 224 pp., paper. Confronted with the notion of "everyday aesthetics," one is immediately faced with some problems of definition. Such problems potentially threaten the viability of the everyday aesthetics project to extend the scope of philosophical aesthetics, so that, as Jonathan Smith suggests in his introduction to this collection of essays, "nothing in the everyday world (or at least very little) can be supposed devoid of the power to excite an aesthetic response." "Everyday" can mean both "daily" and "ordinary," and while the two definitions often coincide in practice, there's no necessary connection: we can conceive the "daily" as remarkable, and the "ordinary" may not be a regular occurrence. If we focus on the aesthetics of the "daily," we might wonder which particular daily occurrences we can be properly said to experience aesthetically and if this means some reassessment of the category of "aesthetic objects" is required, given that "daily" is so often associated with the mundane, the nonaesthetic. Alternatively, if we conceive an aesthetics of the "ordinary" (with agreement on this classification of certain events and objects), then our notion of the "aesthetic" now seems vulnerable on either of two counts: (1) to claims of incoherence, given any agreement that exemplary aesthetic experience, at least, is fundamentally not of the "ordinary" (and never of the "ugly," of the stained, damp, cracked, and so on, in our domestic lives) but of an extraordinary class of events and objects called "art"; (2) to claims of cognitive and moral triviality (to amorality too, perhaps, that it's possible then, after Thomas de Quincy, to appreciate the way a murder is done), so that the aesthetic response is understood as merely a subjective, noncritical "look and feel" response to (almost) everything. It should be evident, then, that the notion of everyday aesthetics needs clarification before it can be of value to those interested in instructing or helping people to live aesthetic lives, and that such work of clarification gets to the very heart of philosophical aesthetics: answers to questions about what constitutes the "aesthetic" in life will inform all aspects of aesthetic inquiry, education, and practice, including the making and appreciating of artworks. Rightly, then, The Aesthetics of Everyday Life (hereafter AEL) devotes the first of its three sections to essays "theorising the aesthetics of the everyday." Tom Leddy ("The Nature of Everyday Aesthetics") suggests that there is a language of everyday aesthetic experience indicating a realm different from that marked by the language of art criticism and the appreciation of nature. He believes this is a fruitful way to understand the concept of "everyday aesthetics" (EA). [End Page 116] This aesthetic has its own aesthetic objects—everyday objects like the daily commute, the workplace, the shopping center, and places of amusement. This is also a realm traditionally viewed as outside the scope of philosophical aesthetics. The terms used in everyday aesthetic discourse are terms like "neat," "clean," "messy," "right," "nice," and "big"; and experiences of this kind are daily and ordinary (dis)-pleasures. Extraordinary experiences do, it's acknowledged, exist and as such leave the everyday domain. Two key problems are left unanswered by Leddy: What is correct everyday appreciation, and what marks high/extraordinary from low/ordinary aesthetic value and experience? There's no answer because no account is supplied of what makes an experience aesthetic; all that is supplied, in addition to the terms stipulated as indicating everyday aesthetic responses, are the author's references to personal "aesthetic experiences" (the sight of a pile of grass cuttings, for example) and, by extension, all our own equivalent experiences. This leaves the account open to the "trivialization" claim (further evidenced, by the way, by claims that kitsch products exploit everyday aesthetic qualities like "cuteness" and "cuddliness"). And when a class of extraordinary aesthetic experiences is admitted to the account but left unexplained (except that they have their own terms and objects), the problem of incoherence noted above is raised. Arnold Berleant's contributions to an EA are incidentally and too quickly dismissed by...

The translation of the Shandong dialect, specifically in the novel Red Sorghum authored by Mo Yan and translated by Howard Goldblatt, posed significant challenges to both translators and readers due to its local Chinese cultural richness. Previous researches mainly focused on its traditional translation strategies including foreignization and domestication. Exploration of the aesthetic value of dialect and its cultural representations in modern literature is a relatively new area of research yet to be developed. This paper revealed that translation operates in a complicated three-dimensional structure of translator (aesthetic subject), translated text (aesthetic object), and culture (social environment). In the process of translating dialect, the aesthetic experience and the Aesthetic Regulation Devices (ARD) adopted by the translator, as well as the beauty of characterization and symbolization come into play. Therefore, aesthetic values and cultural uniqueness are represented not only on the linguistic, but also on the spiritual level by contrasting the purity of the villagers in rural China and the brutality of the social turbulence that surrounds them. The paper demonstrated that dialect translation involves a multifaceted and dynamic equivalence between source and target language. The research findings indicated that translation techniques of domestication and foreignization are utilized significantly more often (82%) than the strategy of ARD (18%) during the translation process. This imbalance in strategy usage may result in a deficient representation of aesthetic and cultural values. The significance of this study lies mainly in its intention to reconstruct a more effective theoretical paradigm for dialectal translation procedures.

ISER'S CRITIQUE OF INGARDEN Iser praises Ingarden's phenomenology for rejecting notion of an aesthetic observer (contemplator). This notion may lead us to view reading as contemplation (of aesthetic values) of a finished product. Instead of this notion of classical aesthetics, Ingarden introduces notion of concretization and makes reader one responsible for creation of literary of art as an aesthetic object. Prior to act of reading, 'the itself' is a skeleton of schemes. These schemes exist on different strata: stratum of sound, stratum of meaning-units, stratum of represented objectivities, and stratum of aspects. The reader concretizes work, turning a schematic formation into a full-fledged aesthetic object. Concretization is achieved by adding determinations to schemes of text on all strata. Yet determinations offered by reader in order to fill places of indeterminacy in stratum of represented objectivities cannot be seen as a in a sense which is analogous to performance of a musical score. In finding material for removal of textual indeterminacies reader draws on his own experience (in life and literature) in order to bring into existence a whole world of represented objects. The concretization of representational stratum is more clearly dependent on personality and experience of reader; demands made upon reader in connection with it are unique. Without meeting them partially at least, there is no way of turning the work into an aesthetic object (Ingarden, 1973a: 29f., 332ff.). Yet, according to Iser, Ingarden's descriptions still show influence of classical aesthetics. As Ingarden sees it, represented objectivities in literary of art are purely intentional. They owe their existence to author's intentionality, which supplies a schematic foundation for their being, and to reader's intentionality, which fills out these schemes. The task of reader to bring these into full being is exhausted by giving them appearance of real things (making them, in Ingarden's term, 'quasi-real'). As reader must do this in a way which fits structure of work, various schemes in (and more generally whole as a schematic formation) may be seen as a system which sets norms for appropriate concretizations (Iser, 1978: 171).2

Not all of comedy movies are considered funny by viewers. Movie is an art that can be regarded as beautiful or not. Movie is one of the mass media that can be quickly accepted by public. Movie brings together various elements such as audio, visual, visual art, light and others. The elements that unite these beautiful make films can be judged by the audience. Mr. Bean comedy is very familiar to moviegoers. Almost everyone knows the character of Mr. Bean always invite laughter. The audience was brought to respond positively always. In this case, the audience feels something when you watch this movie. The aesthetic object requires the observer to feel something on the object. Feeling that is felt by the viewer based on the experience that has been passed. If the experience is positive, then the object will be perceived to have aesthetic value. Aesthetics of communication helps people to be more sensitive to surrounding. Therefore, this study tried to find out how aesthetic forms that appear in this movie.

This study aims to explore the aesthetics of the Kaia Dance in the socio-cultural context of the Laban community, Kenagarian Salido, IV Jurai District, Pesisir Selatan Regency, West Sumatra. The method employed is a qualitative approach with analytical description, where all data, both written and field data, are described and analyzed according to the research problem. The aesthetic theories of A.A.M. Djelantik and Deni Junaedi are used to examine the issues, while Y. Sumandyo Hadi's perspective is applied to analyze the dance form. Kaia Dance is a traditional dance that has evolved in the Laban community, Kenagarian Salido. It embodies aesthetic elements reflecting the struggle to provide for one's family and draws inspiration from the surrounding nature and local conditions. This study provides new insights into understanding the Kaia Dance as a complex medium of expression, not only in terms of its movements but also in its rich social symbolism and local aesthetic values. The aesthetic values in Kaia Dance can be observed through three aspects: aesthetic object, aesthetic subject, and aesthetic value

Following the “guiding thread” of the table of judgments in the Critique of Pure Reason , the third moment in the Analytic of the Beautiful is that of relation. Unlike the logical functions of relation or the relational categories, however, the relation in question is between the judging subject and the object judged and/or its representation. Thus, for the first time in the Analytic, the aesthetic object, which up to this point has been largely left out of the picture, becomes an explicit focus of attention. Nevertheless, it is clear from both the inclusion of this discussion in the moment of relation and the emphasis placed on the representation of the object that the concern is not with the inherent nature of such an object, not even considered as phenomenon, but rather with the object qua represented, that is, apprehended in mere reflection, and its aesthetic, and therefore noncognitive and nonpractical, relation to the subject. Although it is never explicitly formulated as such, the basic question underlying the discussion is how we are to characterize this relation, such that it can account for the possibility of a universally communicable pleasure in the harmony of the faculties. Thus, as I shall try to show, the third moment presupposes and builds upon the results of the second in much the same way as the latter presupposes and builds upon the results of the first. It is also in this context that Kant introduces the essential, yet deeply problematic, notions of a “purposiveness without purpose” and “form” (including both a “form of purposiveness” and a “purposiveness of form”) into the analysis of taste.

At the outset of a lecture I gave some years ago on the subject of contemporary art and value, I suggested that my audience, which was made up of postgraduate students with art history degrees, ask questions where and when they felt necessary. In most cases, this offer is thankfully not taken up until after the talk. On this occasion, however, my misplaced munificence was rewarded with a question before I had a chance to make my opening remarks. The questioner was seated in the front row and was therefore unavoidable; and her question – in all its pointedness and urgent delivery – was equally unavoidable. ‘So what’, she asked, ‘is the difference between selling contemporary art and carpets – or, for that matter, used cars?’ The enquiry, and its unexpected early intrusion into my lecture, flummoxed me for a moment, but I proffered – perhaps glibly in retrospect – the following response: although the art world exists and operates to all intents and purposes like any other economic system or business, art itself could not be, and indeed should not be, treated as a commodity. In this response, I was expressing an obviously idealistic belief: artistic practice and financial worth should not answer to the same rules of value; in fact, they cannot be answerable to the same ideals insofar as aesthetic and economic value are of necessity two different things. The words, even as I uttered them – and perhaps more so now in the current ‘boom’ environment of the contemporary art market – felt compromised from the outset. In the first instance, not only does the art world operate in a manner similar to a conventional consumerist system of commodification, but also that most contentious of aesthetic terms – value – would appear to be increasingly answerable to an economic system based upon a crude supply and demand model. How else, for example, do we account for the credulousexcitement surrounding the unveiling in London of what is apparently the most expensive, if not most speculative, art work ever made – namely, Damien Hirst’s For the Love of God (2007), a platinum skull covered by 8,601 diamonds, costing £12 million to make and with a purported asking price of £50 million. It is arguable that such a work would not have been produced (supplied) without there being a buyer (demand) for it in the first place. In this instance demand – the financial wherewithal to buy such a work – would appear to have predicated the supply; that is, the aesthetic object. Demand, likewise, would appear to be fuelling the ever-increasing prices that contemporary art achieves at auction.2

This paper discusses on ags used by Hizb ut-Tahrir Indonesia Yogyakarta (HTI DIY). This organization uses two types of ag: liwa and rayah. The color of the liwa is white and the color of the rayah is black. Upon both the profession of faith (shahada) is written in Arabic Calligraphy. Historically speaking, the Prophet Muhammad used the liwa and the rayah. Politically speaking, both ags are intended for use as the ag of the nwe caliphate to which HizbI ut-Tahrir (HT) aspires. HTI DIY con rms that liwa and rayah are not their ags but ags of Islam. The semiotic aesthetics study of the ags includes the study of aesthetic object, aesthetic values, and aesthetics experience. As aesthetic objects, the liwa and rayah show varieties. Aesthetic values of those ags consist of a symbolic value, one which refers to Islam and the Caliphate; iconic value, i.e.the imitation of the Prophet Muhammad’s ags; and indexical value indicating the activity of the HTI DIY. Aesthetic experiences of the ags experienced by the HTI DIY activists are in the form of the emotional effects.

This paper presents that art with BCI (Brain-Computer Interaction) is decolonizing from the dimensions of action between politics and the aesthetic in traditional knowledge systems. In order to explore the creative power of art with BCI, it proposes the concept of decolonizing aesthetics. It critiques the beauty of art with BCI, through the reframing of aesthetic activities such as aesthetic objects, aesthetic attitudes, and aesthetic values in the view of psychoanalysis. Its aim is to find out a response for alternative perspectives of reference in HCI (Human-Computer Interaction) systems and alternative ways of understanding the relationships and collaborative actions between humans and new digital technologies.

In the 19th century, the concept of unconditional objectivity and authenticity was linked up with the techniques of photography and microphotography. As Robert Koch declared, the sight provided by the microscope was more authentic and real than what the eye could see, yet he modified his photos of bacteria by drawing so as to render their spatial features more spectacularly. In addition to the deliberate changes to promote scientific authenticity, another subconscious mechanism, the working of the imagination, must also be considered. The microscopic images also stimulated the fancy of scientific researchers, for the scientific images also had an abstract, fictitious character. As they elicited associations and carried aesthetic qualities, microscopic images soon became popular and widely reproduced souvenirs. They spread first in Switzerland, a few years later in Germany and Austria, providing new sources of inspiration for artists seeking novel ornamental trends around the turn of the century. Dezső Mokry-Mészáros was the first artist in Hungary and one of the first ones in Europe to paint pictures inspired by microscopic images in 1904. Born at Sajóecseg in 1881, Mokry was a self-taught artist also well versed in the natural sciences. In 1903 he enrolled in the agricultural academy of Magyaróvár where he studied microbiology, botany, the use of the microscope under the guidance of the great scholars of the age. He acquired the difficult skill of microscopic drawing at that time. Apart from the mentioned aesthetic aspects of microscopic images, his pictures inspired by the microcosm were probably also influenced by publications of the microbiological results of his age as well as by vitalist philosophy. His first series, Life on an alien planet reveals that he knew Gusztáv Moesz' writing on the “micro jungle” of the living waters published in 1902 with vivid graphic illustrations. The vitalists traced life from water as its prime source and since the recent findings of microbiology appeared to confirm these ideas, Mokry exposed to the spectator the luxurious jungle of a secret underwater population invisible to the naked eye. The realism of his microscopic motifs is so strict that I managed to identify a lot of his ornaments of zoological and botanic origins (28 tissue sections, microscopic creatures). The working of the imagination is not detectable at the level of motifs but at the level of composition. Mokry juxtaposed fatty tissue and fungi spores, diatom and pollens in his pictures in ways that never occur in nature. He developed a picture structure from arbitrarily elongated formulae to evoke some underwater scenery often extending to the frames he had made himself. Although the actual use of the microscope and of the microscopic images ended around 1910, this motivic stock became fixed and he drew on it for his pictures on prehistory. Dezső Mokry-Mészáros died in Miskolc in 1970. A smaller part of his works — some 180 — are in private collections, the majority being in public museums including the Herman Otto Museum, Miskolc, the Hungarian National Gallery and the Museum of Naïve Art, Kecskemét. Dezső Mokry-Mészáros was the first artist in Hungary to probe the microscopic world for new motifs, becoming the forerunning and for a long time the only representative of a western trend that popularized microscopic images as aesthetic values. The historical review of the emergence of the microscopic image as an aesthetic object, the identification of the motifs of microscopic origin and the comparison of the motifs with contemporaneous scientific publications have made it clear that Dezső Mokry-Mészáros' works can only be interpreted in full in an international context.

Click to increase image sizeClick to decrease image size Notes1. The Febuary 2011 annual meeting of the College Art Association (CAA) in New York had an entire session organized by Patricia Mainardi dedicated to “The Crisis in Art History.” The papers were later published in a special issue of Visual Resources (27, no. 4, 2011). Yet the present crisis in the discipline can be considered just the latest of many that it has faced at least since the 1970s, when a whole new range of theoretical references, such as postcolonial theories, psychoanalysis, gender studies, and semiotics, pressured art historians to reflect about their specific approaches to art. Hans Belting's Das Ende der Kunstgeschichte? came out in 1983, centering its fire on the power structures of the field in Germany, and in 1982 the Art Journal also produced an issue on “The Crisis in the Discipline,” edited by Henri Zerner, with articles by such leading art historians as Rosalind Krauss, David Summers, and Donald Preziosi, among others. At that time, the main topic of discussion was the incorporation of new objects of study in the art historical field, such as advertisement, photography, and other aspects of visual culture, bringing art history closer to so-called visual studies. Concerns about developing a global art history, something that still resonates today, appeared at the turn of the century with important publications such as Hans Belting's Bild-Anthropologie (2001) and David Summers's Real Spaces (2003). Both books demonstrate a special interest in anthropology, which persists today with the incorporation of anthropological theories such as those of Alfred Gell and Bruno Latour, for example, into the field. Belting, Das Ende der Kunstgeschichte? (Munich: Deutscher Kunstverlag, 1983), trans. as The End of the History of Art? (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987); Zerner, ed., “The Crisis in the Discipline,” special issue, Art Journal 42, no. 4 (Winter 1982); Belting, Bild-Anthropologie (Munich: W. Fink, 2001); and Summers, Real Spaces: World Art History and the Rise of Western Modernism (London: Phaidon Press, 2003).2. This was the 33rd Congress of the Comité International d’Histoire de l’Art, Germanische Nationalmuseum Nuremberg, July 15–20, 2012. Its theme, “The Challenge of the Object,” appears somewhat conservative when considered from the perspective of contemporary art. Since at least the 1960s Conceptual art has done away with the idea of a necessary connection between art and the material world, which had important political consequences as well.3. The same logic that we see here organizes much of the “globalized” art world. In a review of the exhibition Africa Remix: L’art contemporain d’un continent, presented at the Centre Georges Pompidou, Paris, in 2005, Roberto Conduru notes that African artists still need to pass through the established institutions of art in the United States or in Europe to enter the circuits of the international market and art world. “With one sole exception—Wim Botha … all of the remaining 87 artists already represented their country and/or the Continent in the Biennials that proliferate throughout the world, and also presented their work in prestigious institutions within the system of international art.” Conduru, “O mundo é uma tribo,” Concinnitas (UERJ, Rio de Janeiro), no. 8 (July 2005): 198–202.4. Although this in fact is a very significant way to approach Brazilian visual culture, it should not be exclusive. Important work has been done in the last few years on the process of the transfer and circulation of material culture within the Portuguese Empire and in Brazil. See Jens M. Baumgarten, “Transformation asiatischer Artefakte in brasilianischen Kontexten,” in Topologien des Reisens, ed. Alexandra Karentzos, Alma-Elisa Kittner, and Julia Reuter (Trier: Universität Trier, 2009), vol. 1, 178–94.5. A good example can be found in Rodrigo Naves's interpretation of Jean-Baptiste Debret's Brazilian period: “Definitely, the existence of slavery hindered once and for all any effort to transplant the classical form as truth into Brazil.” Naves, A forma difícil: Ensaios sobre arte brasileira (São Paulo: Ática,1996), 71.6. Moema is the tragic character of Frei Santa Rita Durão's epic poem Caramuru. She was the sister of Caramuru's wife, Paraguaçu, and drowned while swimming after the ship that carried Caramuru back to Europe.7. Regarding the position that Baroque occupies in Brazilian art history, it is interesting that in the first Pan-American Congress of Architects, organized in Uruguay in 1920, Alexandre de Albuquerque proposed the Baroque manner of Minas Gerais as the source for a Brazilian national style, since, according to him, Brazil did not possess a strong indigenous culture, as did other countries in South America.8. Sergio Miceli, Nacional estrangeiro (São Paulo: Companhia das Letras, 2003).9. The study of art history is relatively recent in Brazil, and by examining other contributions to the history of culture in the country, one can find elements that could help to impel art history in new directions. The writer Mario de Andrade, one of the main protagonists of Brazilian modernism, for instance, developed a genuine interest in African and Native culture and in 1936 wrote a project for the creation of an Institute for National Patrimony in which he included material and immaterial culture of the different populations in Brazil. In the same period, the sociologist Gilberto Freyre, who had studied with Franz Boas, wrote his classic book Casa-grande e senzala, in which he examines the diversity of contributions to Brazilian culture. In the 1940s and 1950s, Lina Bo Bardi organized exhibitions in Bahia and at the São Paulo Art Museum (MASP) based on her research on popular art in Brazil. See, among others, Antonio Gilberto Nogueira, Por um inventário dos sentidos: Mário de Andrade e a concepçã de patrimônio e inventário (São Paulo: Hucitec/Fapesp., 2005); Marina Grinover and Silvana Rubino, eds., Lina por escrito: Textos escolhidos de Lina Bo Bardi (São Paulo: Cosac e Naify, 2009); and Gilberto Freyre, Casa-grande e senzala (São Paulo: Global, 2003).10. “From this we conclude that … art, in its simple forms, is not necessarily expressive of purposive action, but rather based upon our reactions to forms that develop through mastery of technique.” Franz Boas, Primitive Art (New York: Dover, 1955), 62. I also think that Boas's question about what could be considered an aesthetic object in these cultures is a very important one because it definitely secures these objects as of interest for the field of art history, at the same time that it forces us to listen to the point of view of their creators.11. On Assuriní visual culture, see Regina Polo Müller, Os Assuriní do Xingu: História e arte (Campinas: Unicamp, 1993). When dealing with contemporary indigenous culture we must also acknowledge the impact of the market on how aesthetic value is assigned. This, of course, implies recognizing that indigenous culture is in fact alive and interacting with other sectors of society today, resisting the tendency of both anthropologists and art historians to imagine these cultures as if “frozen in the past.”12. Tapirage is the name given to a technique used by some indigenous groups to alter the feather colors of live birds. See Amy Buono, “Crafts of Color: Tupi Tapirage in Early Colonial Brazil,” in The Materiality of Color: The Production, Circulation, and Application of Dyes and Pigments 1400–1800, ed. Andrea Feeser, Maureen Daly Goggin, and Beth Fowkes (Aldershot, U.K.: Ashgate Press, 2012), 8–40.13. Amy Buono, “Indigeneity as Corporeality: The ‘Tupinambization’ of the Early Modern Atlantic,” in Art and Its Histories in Brazil, by Claudia Mattos and Roberto Conduru, Issues and Debates (Los Angeles: Getty Research Institute, forthcoming).14. On this issue, see Joanne Rappaport and Tom Cummins, Beyond the Lettered City: Indigenous Literacies in the Americas (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 2012), 1–26.15. As I have argued above, there cannot be one unitary Brazilian art; given the constant dynamic exchange between local and transferred material and immaterial culture, we must substitute this concept for a more dynamic view of the arts in Brazil.16. Terreiro is the name for buildings and spaces that contain Afro-Brazilian religious activities. Quilombos are historic settlements of fugitive and freed slaves that were created in remote places within the interior of Brazil.17. We must learn to see the circulation of people, ideas, and objects between different localities in Africa and Brazil as a two-way process. As Roberto Conduru notes, although slavery implied the forced migration of a much larger population from Africa to the Americas, there was also some significant immigration in the other direction. This is well documented, for example, in the development of agudá architecture in the region of the Gulf of Guinea (Togo, Benin, and Nigeria). Conduru, “Sobrevivência e invenção—conexões artísticas entre Brasil e África,” in Mattos and Conduru, Art and Its Histories in Brazil.18. The direct relation between art and art history has been pointed out numerous times. Wolfgang Kemp (“Benjamin and Aby Warburg,” Kritische Berichte, no. 3 [1975]: 5–6) has argued that Dadaist collage played an important role in the development of Aby Warburg's Mnemosyne Atlas, for instance. See Kurt W. Forster, “Die Hamburg-Amerika-Linie, oder: Warburgs Kunstwissenschaft zwischen den Kontinenten,” in Aby Warburg: Akten des internationalen Symposions, Hamburg, ed. Horst Bredekamp, Michael Diers, and Charlotte Schoell-Glass (Weinheim: Wiley-VCH Verlag), 11–37. Performance art has helped us understand the theatricality of Baroque art, and it also can be very productive in interpreting much of what we call Native art, for instance.19. Thierry Dufrêne, “Pour en finir avec le corset de la chronologie: Vers une histoire de l’art élargie qui rapproche les temps et les oeuvres,” in Théâtre du Monde, exh. cat. (Paris: FAGE, 2013), 30–37. The exhibition at La Maison Rouge, which showed the collection of eccentric Tasmanian collector David Walsh, was curated by Jean-Hubert Martin, who also used Surrealist-inspired anachronistic models to display the objects.20. Belting, Bild-Anthropologie; and Summers, Real Spaces. For a critique of David Summers's book in relation to the question of a new world art history, see James Elkins, “On David Summers's Real Spaces,” in Is Art History Global? (New York: Routledge, 2007), 41–72.Additional informationNotes on contributorsClaudia MattosClaudia Mattos, professor of art history at the University of Campinas, earned a PhD from the Freie Universität, Berlin, in 1996. She publishes on nineteenth- and twentieth-century art and is preparing one book on art and ecology in Brazil and editing another on Brazilian art history for Getty Publications [Instituto de Artes, Departamento de Artes Plásticas, Rua Elis Regina 50, Cidade Universitária Zeferino Vaz, 13083-854, Campinas, SP, Brazil, cvmattos@iar.unicamp.br].

The Lingnan poet-monk group in early Qing Dynasty is the largest poet group in China to date, with the most renowned being the Haiyun school. The leader, Hanshi, left behind the Xiatang Poetry Collection in 20 volumes, which is considered a classic of Lingnan Buddhist literature. The Chan poems of Tianran Hanshi, as an aesthetic object, contain rich Chan meanings and artistic nuances. Their aesthetic value is primarily reflected in three aspects: the beauty of sound, the beauty of emotion, and the beauty of imagery. This study, using Liu miqing's translation aesthetics as a linguistic aesthetic framework, explores the English translation practices of ancient poems, analyzing how interlingual conversion is carried out within formal and non-formal systems, and how the Chan principles of the original poems are conveyed. The goal is to recreate the ethereal tranquility of the original, promoting the cultural dissemination and reception of Lingnan monk poetry in the English-speaking world.