What Is Interesting About Conspiracy Theories?

“Conspiracy theory”: The case for being critically receptive

Theoretical typology of deceptive content (Conspiracy Theories)

Henrik Ibsen and Conspiracy Thinking: The Case of <i>Peer Gynt</i>

“We live in an age of conspiracy” says Don DeLillo (1989). In 2014 it seems that conspiracy theories, and speculation concerning the “truth” about major events, has become a popular theme and pastime in contemporary society. From sold out eleven hour David Icke presentations at Wembley Stadium in the UK (as well as his world tours), to the ever expanding radio and television network of Alex Jones in the United States, it is clear that there is more than just a fringe interest in conspiracy theories. In the academic literature dating back to Richard Hofstadter (1964) though, the phenomenon has been cast as a purely pathological or paranoid behaviour. Recent works, such as that of Sunstien and Vermeule (2009), Aaronovitch (2011) and van der Linden (2013) go further in suggesting that engagement with conspiracy theories is not only a pathological behaviour, but a danger both to modern society and one which threatens to bring an end to the “age of reason.” Others however, such as Jane and Fleming (2014) have suggested that conspiracy theories are actually a direct result of Enlightenment thinking, and that they offer a valuable counterweight to modern forms of propaganda. In this thesis I seek to challenge the view that conspiracy theories are a pathological behaviour, and offer instead that in contemporary engagement with conspiracy theories is a form of political resistance that allows the excluded and disaffected a political voice. I also offer that conspiracy theories are best understood as social, cultural and political narratives that are in the words of Michael Barkun (2003) a form of stigmatized knowledge. From this perspective it is possible, I argue, to contextualise conspiracy theories in terms of contemporary political and social issues. Finally, I suggest that conspiracy theories may be a method that is used by those who engage to negotiate social ambivalence as outlined by Bauman (1991). To do this, I interviewed eight Melbournians who were either engaged with conspiracy theories or considered themselves “sceptics.” Each of the participants, shared stories of their everyday experiences with conspiracy theories with me. I have analysed their responses using a thematic narrative analysis and underpinning my research were four research questions: [1] How do people living and working in Melbourne define and use conspiracy theories in their everyday lives?; [2] In my data, are conspiracy theories being discussed (and used) as a form of political action for the alienated and marginalized? [3] Does my data collected conform to the two broad understandings that I have outlined in the literature review (the cultural and psychological approaches)? [4] Following question 3, do my participants engage with conspiracy theories as social, cultural and political narratives that offer a new or alternative means of political resistance?

Conspiracy theories are part of mainstream public life, with the potential to undermine governments, promote racism, ignite extremism and threaten public health efforts. Psychological research on conspiracy theories is booming, with more than half of the academic articles on the topic published since 2019. In this Review, we synthesize the literature with an eye to understanding the psychological factors that shape willingness to believe conspiracy theories. We begin at the individual level, examining the cognitive, clinical, motivational, personality and developmental factors that predispose people to believe conspiracy theories. Drawing on insights from social and evolutionary psychology, we then review research examining conspiracy theories as an intergroup phenomenon that reflects and reinforces societal fault lines. Finally, we examine how conspiracy theories are shaped by the economic, political, cultural and socio-historical contexts at the national level. This multilevel approach offers a deep and broad insight into conspiracist thinking that increases understanding of the problem and offers potential solutions.

Famous American authors Robert Anton Wilson and Robert Joseph Shea are considered to be one of the best conspiracy thriller fiction writers. Both were impressed by conspiracy theories. Both have explored conspiracy theories about secret societies like the Assassins, Knights Templars, Freemasons, the Illuminati, and conspiracy theories about depopulation agendas, cults, anti-Semitism, discordianism, New World Order, famous assassinations and world domination plans in The Illuminatus! Trilogy (1975). Terms like conspiracy theories, secret societies, Freemasons, and the Illuminati, Baphomet, Assassins, and their symbols like pyramids, the number 666, the All- Seeing Eye or one eye symbolism, Satanic or Devil worship are used in movies, cartoons, reality shows, literature, music and popular culture. Secret societies have become one of the most attention seeking topics for fiction writers, and mostly the conspiracy thriller fiction writers like Dan Brown, Robert Anton Wilson and Robert Shea have explored them in their works. Conspiracy theories have become a new burning topic of debate and research for psychologists, social science and literary researchers. The 2009 movie Angels and Demons based on the same titled novel by Dan Brown and famous conspiracy theorist David Icke’s books and videos have also done a spurious publicity of this secret society. So it is necessary to know what this Illuminati is. This paper is focused on the conspiracy theories and questions about the existence of the Illuminati.

Conspiracy theories are particularly prevalent in times of crisis and pose a major threat to democracy. Young people are especially susceptible to conspiracy theories, as this period is characterized by high social vulnerability and constant reflection on one's position in society. However, to date little is known about the determinants of young people's belief in conspiracy theories in general and in times of crisis in particular. In this study, we address this research gap by investigating the belief of young people in Germany (N = 2437, aged 16 to 29) in conspiracy theories about the war in Ukraine. Drawing on Douglas and colleagues’ (2017) taxonomy, we find that epistemic (e.g., political self‐efficacy), existential (e.g., political trust), and social (e.g., social exclusion) motives influence belief in conspiracies about the war among young people. However, while the taxonomy suggests equal influence of the three motives, the effects of feelings of social exclusion on war‐related conspiracy beliefs among youth are mainly mediated by a strong influence of political distrust. In this way, our findings contribute to a better understanding of conspiracy beliefs among young people and highlight the importance of increasing young people's political trust to prevent the spread of conspiracy theories.

The premise of this article is that conspiracy theories are not only means of finding the truth in times of uncertainty but they are central for the affirmation of already existing values and premeditated perceptions in their respective societies in need of further validation as well (Sobo and Drążkiewicz 2020). This argument is especially noteworthy in the cultural context of Poland where conspiracy theories currently enjoy a different status than in other, especially Western European countries. Their contemporary relevance for the ruling party Prawo i Sprawiedliwość (PiS), which has purposefully enhanced the popularity of conspiracy theories in the Polish public sphere in the last years, is only one of various factors contributing to Poland being framed a country with a “conspiracist mentality” beyond Covid-19 conspiracism. By looking at some of the most popular conspiracy theories in Poland during Covid-19, the chapter will draw connections between the content, especially the actors thematized therein, and their meaning for the Polish society at large. More specifically, I will consider how the pandemic has affected belief in conspiracy theories in Poland, what trends can be identified regarding the variety of conspiracy theories circulating in Poland, and how some of the political conditions specific for Poland have affected the conspiracist trends observed during the Covid-19 pandemic. Many Covid-19 conspiracy theories popular in Poland, I will argue, fit into a larger scheme of conspiracist beliefs which are part of the specific historical, political, social, and cultural conditions of the country.

To help fill in the research gap on conspiracy theorizing online (Varis 2019), this chapter addresses two research questions: the discursive construction of conspiracy theoryness in online affinity spaces (Gee 2005) and the extent to which these discursive constructions are aligned with those previously identified by extant literature, which has traditionally taken a top-down, macro-level perspective, as defining of conspiracy theories. Conspiracy theories are essentially social constructs (Butter and Knight 2016). To our knowledge, research to date has not examined how notions of what counts as a conspiracy theory are shaped in a bottom-up manner as knowledge, identities, and associated practices that are subjected to discursive struggle. Online affinity spaces, such as those provided by Reddit and YouTube and in which conspiracy theories are regularly discussed, give us unprecedented access to this process. Our analysis shows how the discursive construction of knowledge is crucially related to the concept of truth and how, contrary to common representations, conspiracy theories are seen – from an emic perspective – as stemming from rationality, reasoning, and deployment of an (albeit sui generis) scientific method. Although committed to knowledge activism, conspiracy theories in our data display a manifest proclivity for eudaimonic and social variables and lean strongly towards the depiction of the agents’ identity (both human and non-human) against whom conspiracy theorists relationally construct who they are.

Conspiracy theories flourished during the COVID-19 outbreak. The present study takes a cross-national comparative perspective to understand the relationships among people's national identities, trust in institutions, and their beliefs in COVID-19 origin conspiracy theories blaming other nations. Four cross-national surveys were conducted in China, South Korea, Spain, and the United States with a total of 1642 respondents. The results revealed that two dimensions of national identities—national hubris and restrictive views of legitimate membership—are positively related to beliefs in conspiracy theories targeting other nations. This relationship was supported in three countries with different social, political, historical, and cultural contexts and diverse meanings attached to national identities. Also, people's trust in mainstream media, governments, and scientists was found to moderate the relationships between national identities and beliefs in conspiracy theories; yet, this moderating effect was not consistent across the selected nations.

PurposeThe digital setting empowers users to actively engage in communicative actions. The problem is that this active communication can increase misjudgment in determining the facts around social issues. When this communication is integrated with partisan biases, the effects can be particularly detrimental. Our study tested whether active communication actions regarding social issues and different trust levels toward presidential administrations (Trump vs. Biden) would increase belief in conspiracy theories.Design/methodology/approachTo examine this, the study used online survey datasets (Amazon Mechanical Turk,N = 1355) collected during July and August 2021 concerning three political issues: the Afghanistan issue, the Black Lives Matter issue, and the Voter Fraud issue.FindingsThe findings show that among participants with more active communication actions, the higher Trump government trust is and the lower Biden government trust is, the more belief in conspiracy theories increases. Interestingly, interaction effects of trust in government and active communicative actions were found among both Trump and Biden supporters.Practical/Social ImplicationsCombined with preexisting efforts to tackle misinformation online, there are extensive efforts underway to educate laypeople about the dangers of misinformation. People must understand that any person could fall into belief in conspiracy theories if they do not carefully diagnose their information behaviors.Originality/ValueOur study can increase knowledge about people’s situational belief in conspiracy theories based on their political stance. The study can support future research, promoting a deeper understanding of belief in conspiracy theories.

I argue that ‘conspiracy theory’ and ‘conspiracy theorist’ as commonly employed are ‘tonkish’ terms (as defined by Arthur Prior and Michael Dummett), licensing inferences from truths to falsehoods; indeed, that they are mega-tonkish terms, since their use is governed by different and competing sets of introduction and elimination rules, delivering different and inconsistent results. Thus ‘conspiracy theory’ and ‘conspiracy theorist’ do not have determinate extensions, which means that generalizations about conspiracy theories or conspiracy theorists do not have determinate truth-values. Hence conspiracy theory theory – psychological or social scientific research into conspiracy theorists and what is wrong with them – is often about as intellectually respectable as an enquiry into bastards and what makes them so mean.

Modern civilization space is characterized by a high level of technical and scientific discovery, however, mythological consciousness and belief in conspiracy theories still exist. The article deals with one of the popular mythologies of modern civilization – the conspiracy theory. The relevance of the presented research is due to the importance of considering from the position of linguistic and cultural understanding the mechanisms of the generation and spread of myths in the modern communicative mass consciousness, which actively appeals to mythologems, despite the highly developed science. The analysis of a wide range of theoretical sources of both Russian and foreign authors is carried out in order to comprehensively study the stated issue. The description of universal and ethnospecific mythologies of the modern civilizational space is given, which indicates both the globalization processes and the uniqueness of the value system of each country, respectively. The determination of the values that make up the conspiracy discourse, the dominant “evil”, remains constant. The analysis of the empirical research material is carried out in line with the linguistic and cultural approach with the involvement of elements of frame analysis and discourse analysis. Special attention is paid to the issues of the structure of the conspiracy theory, as well as to the conspiratorial discourse, within which the frame «conspiracy theory» gets its implementation. When describing the «Conspiracy Mystery» frame, its hierarchically ordered structure is noted, which consists of interconnected subframes and slots. The analysis made it possible to determine the common characteristics of the «conspiracy theory» frame, as well as to identify areas of ethno-cultural reflection. The structure of the conspiracy discourse is described: participants, chronotope, value priorities, and strategies. It is noted that most of the theories under consideration are universal, but local ones that are widespread within a certain state remain.

The objective of this study is to examine some of the factors contributing to belief in conspiracy theories. They have gained considerable popularity among the public in recent years. They react more and more often to several socially significant events taking place around us, while coming up with an alternative explanation, especially for those events that concern a larger number of people. Due to the fast introduction of the Internet and the rapid development in the field of information and communication technologies, systems and means, conspiracy theories are penetrating very significantly especially in the field of mass media and notably in the field of new media. Today, social networks are the medium with the greatest spread of various conspiracy theories. It is one of the primary reasons why conspiracy theories have become the subject of our scientific interest. With the use of relevant methods of qualitative theoretical scientific research, in this work we present our research findings and a look at some selected factors contributing to belief in conspiracy theories to readers from the professional and lay public.&#x0D; &#x0D; Received: 8 February 2023 / Accepted: 16 April 2023 / Published: 5 May 2023

Telegram and Digital Methods