What do we know about the epidemiology of infectious diseases and parasites of free-ranging Neotropical ungulates? Needs and priorities.

Argentina has an extensive and diverse terrain classified into 11 ecoregions. Seven of these ecoregions, occupying the north and north-central parts of the country, house the 11 tropical ungulate species found here. The ecoregions are lowland and subtropical, some beginning in the tropics, some extending to temperate climates. The principal topographical characteristics, hydrology, climate, vegetation and fauna are described for these seven ecoregions. Each of the 11 species is then treated in detail with respect to its ecology and conservation. Emphasis is placed on distribution, habitat and density, feeding ecology, threats and conservation in Argentina, based on the most recent studies. Data on reproductive biology and behaviour are included where information is relatively recent and unlikely to be covered elsewhere. The species include the following: the Brazilian tapir (Tapirus terrestris), found in northern subtropical ecoregions, three species of peccary (Tayassu pecari, Pecari tajacu and Parachoerus wagneri) from northern subtropical and drier regions, of which the Chacoan peccary (P. wagneri) is endemic while the other two species have more extensive distributions. The guanaco (Lama guanicoe) occurs only in relict populations in the ecoregions considered. The taruca (Hippocamelus antisensis) occupies the eastern boundary between the Yungas and drier, high altitude ecoregions. Three species of brocket deer (Mazama americana, M. gouazoubira and M. nana) occupy the northern tropical, subtropical and Chacoan areas. The marsh deer (Blastocerus dichotomus), the largest South American deer, has small populations occupying wetlands from the northern border to the Parana delta, while the pampas deer (Ozotocerus bezoaticus) is found in four isolated populations from Ibera to Buenos Aires province. Argentina represents the southern limit to the distribution of all these species and thus threats are often magnified. Ongoing conservation activities include the maintenance of protected areas, promotion (difusion, education, sensitization), investigation and the reintroduction of some species of formerly extinct ungulates into the Ibera wetlands area.

Abstract:We studied the habitat use, activity patterns and use of mineral licks by five species of Amazonian ungulate using data from four 60-d camera trap surveys at two different sites in the lowland rain forest of Madre de Dios, Peru. Camera traps were set out in two regular grids with 40 and 43 camera stations covering an area of 50 and 65 km2, as well as at five mineral licks. Using occupancy analysis we tested the hypothesis that species are spatially separated. The results showed that the grey brocket deer (Mazama gouazoubira) occurred almost exclusively in terra firme forests, and that the white-lipped peccary (Tayassu pecari) used floodplain forest more frequently during some surveys. All other species showed no habitat preference and we did not find any spatial avoidance of species. The white-lipped peccary, the collared peccary (Pecari tajacu) as well as the grey brocket deer were strictly diurnal while the lowland tapir (Tapirus terrestris) was nocturnal. The red brocket deer (Mazama americana) was active day and night. The tapir was the species with the highest number of visits to mineral licks (average 52.8 visits per 100 d) followed by the white-lipped peccary (average 16.1 visits per 100 d) and the red brocket deer (average 17.1 visits per 100 d). The collared peccary was only recorded on three occasions and the grey brocket deer was never seen at a lick. Our results suggest that resource partitioning takes place mainly at the diet level and less at a spatial level; however, differences in small-scale habitat use are still possible.

Amazonian ungulates, which include the red brocket deer, grey brocket deer, collared peccary, white-lipped peccary, and lowland tapir, consume large quantities of fruit and maximize nutritional gain by exploiting both pulp and seed. Amazonian ungulates often disperse seeds over short distances by spitting them out during mastication. The lowland tapir is the only ungulate that frequently disperses intact seeds through the digestive tract. Brocket deer destroy most of the seeds they consume by digesting them with rumen microbes, while peccaries crack seeds using their resistant teeth, strong jaw musdes, and thick skull bones. Defensive strategies of seeds include strength, chemical toxins, mast fruiting, fibrous lignin, and size variation. Brocket deer and peccaries have pregastric fermentation that may detoxify some secondary compounds of seeds. Small seeds occasionally pass intact through brocket deer and peccary guts. However, strong palm seeds that avert many mammalian predators are often destroyed by ungulates. The fibrous lignin that protects seeds of Jessenia bataua (Palmae) appears to be effective against ungulates which may explain its abundance in the study area. AMAZONIAN UNGULATES CONSUME large quantities of fruit. Fruit constitutes 81 percent of the diet of red brocket deer (Mazama americana), 87 percent of grey brocket deer (M. gouazoubira), 59 percent of collared peccary (Tayassu tajacu), 66 percent of white-lipped peccary (T. pecarn) (Bodmer 1989) and 33 percent of lowland tapir (Tapirus terrestnis) (Bodmer 1990a). Much of the fruit consumed by these large-bodied terrestrial herbivores consists of residual fruit production (those fruits not consumed by arboreal animals that reach the forest floor) and to a lesser extent fruits of subcanopy plants. Therefore, ungulates do not have access to the full range of fruits which are available to arboreal frugivores, such as primates, fruit bats, and birds (Eisenberg & McKay 1974). Plants produce pulpy fruits to attract animal vectors, which, in turn, disperse seeds. Seeds are protected against predators by physical characteristics such as hardness or spines, chemical toxins, and saturation strategies via mast fruiting (Janzen 1971, Waller 1979, Kiltie 1982, Bell 1984, Dirzo & Dominguez 1986). However, ungulates maximize nutritional intake from forest fruits by exploiting the entire fruit resource, including protected seeds (Kiltie 1981, Smythe 1986). This paper examines the extent of seed dispersal and seed predation in Amnazonian ungulates, the various ways in which ungulates disperse seeds, and their adaptations for seed predation. The paper also examines the various ways seeds protect themselves from predators and how brocket deer, peccaries, and tapir overcome these seed defenses.

ABSTRACTTerrestrial ungulates use different strategies to cope with widespread annual flooding of the Amazon basin. Red brocket deer (Mazama americana) and collared peccary (Tayassu tajacu) retreat to floodplain islands and shift from a frugivorous to a woody browse diet. However, both white-lipped peccary (Tayassu pecari) and lowland tapir (Tapirus terrestris) diets are unaffected by inundations; in the case of white-lipped peccary because they migrate into and out of flooded areas and in the case of lowland tapir because of their semi-aquatic nature. These-strategies of white-lipped peccary and lowland tapir enable them to exploit the greater fruit production of flooded forests more frequently than brocket deer and collared peccary.

In addition to shedding light on underlying ecological processes, studies about animal diets are useful for guiding the design of species conservation projects. This study presents general characterizations of the diets of five neotropical ungulates, the lowland tapir ( Tapirus terrestris ), the red brocket deer ( Mazama americana ), the grey brocket deer ( Mazama gouazoubira ), the collared peccary ( Pecari tajacu ) and the white-lipped peccary ( Tayassu pecari ). In addition, a critical review of methodological procedures used in this field of ecology is presented. A number of methodological limitations were identified in this review, which may help guide future research in this field. The predominant types of studies reviewed focused on analyses of fecal matter and stomach contents. Direct observation of foraging, while difficult to implement, proved to be an excellent method for learning about the feeding habits of ungulates. The general foraging patterns of various species and the main ecological roles of the species in the various environments where they occur were also observed. A list of plant species and families is also presented here to aid researchers and conservation practitioners in accessing resources about the main items in the ungulate diets discussed in this study.

IUCN ecology commission's technical meeting in Turkey on wetlands conservation in Western Asia, October 1967

Toxoplasmosis is a zoonosis caused by the protozoan Toxoplasma gondii, and it is found worldwide. To determine whether ungulates are reservoirs of T. gondii in an isolated and remote region of the northeastern Peruvian Amazon, antibodies to T. gondii were determined in 5 species of ungulates by the modified agglutination test (MAT). These animals were hunted by subsistence hunters along the Yavarí-Mirín River, in the northeastern Peruvian Amazon. Blood samples were collected by hunters on filter papers. For determination of T. gondii antibodies, blood was eluted from filter papers, and a titer of 1:25 was considered indicative of exposure to T. gondii. Antibodies to T. gondii were found in 26 (31.0%) peccaries (Pecari tajacu, Tayassu pecari), six (17.1%) brocket deer (Mazama americana, Mazama gouazoubira), and four (40.0%) lowland tapir (Tapirus terrestris). We also introduced a modification to the MAT protocol that allows the extraction of fluid samples from several types of laboratory-grade filter paper, thus enabling researchers to easily adapt their approaches to the materials presented to them.

Resource partitioning of diet and habitat use was studied in the entire Amazonian ungulate community of Northeastern Peru, which comprises the red brocket deer (Mazama americana), grey brocket deer (M. gouazoubira), collared peccary (Tayassu tajacu), white-lipped peccary (T. pecari), and lowland tapir (Tapirus terrestris). Each ungulate species partitioned at least one type of resource from every other species. Digestive morphology had a greater influence on resource partitioning of diet than body size. Neither digestive morphology nor body size were related to segregation of habitats. However, species with similar diets partitioned habitats, whereas species with different diets often used the same type of forest. Increases in habitat breadth of ungulates were positively correlated with increases in dietary breadth.

The mammalian family Tayassuidae (peccaries) is confined to the New World and comprises three recognized extant species, white-lipped (Tayassu pecari), collared (Pecari tajacu) and chacoan (Catagonus wagneri) peccaries, which exhibit distinct morphological and chromosomal features. The phylogenetic relationships among the tayassuids are unclear and have instigated debate over the palaeontological, cytogenetic and molecular aspects. Constitutive heterochromatin analysis can be used in understanding the phylogenetic relationships between related species. Here we describe, for the first time, the constitutive heterochromatin (C-positive heterochromatin) of two tayassuid species, Tayassu pecari and Pecari tajacu. We demonstrate that in situ restriction endonuclease digestion with sequential C-banding could be a complementary tool in the study of constitutive heterochromatin heterogeneity in chromosomes of the Tayassuidae. Our characterization of peccary chromosomes suggests that the Pecari tajacu autosomal karyotype is more primitive and has accumulated great diversity in its constitutive heterochromatin. This idea is supported by several other studies that analysed nuclear and mitochondrial sequences of the living peccary species. Finally, the tayassuid X chromosome primitive form seems to be the one of Tayassu pecari.

People throughout the world are adapting to alternative livelihoods as climate change transforms the earth. The western Amazon basin has recently gone through extreme flood levels that resulted in population declines of species used for wild meat, principally white-lipped peccary ( Tayassu pecari), collared peccary ( Pecari tajacu), red brocket deer ( Mazama americana), lowland paca ( Cuniculus paca), and black agouti ( Dasyprocta fuliginosa). The Cocama (Kukama) people of the Samiria River have adapted to the declining wild meat populations by greatly reducing hunting and increasing their fishing activity. We evaluated the sustainability of subsistence hunting of peccaries, deer, lowland tapir ( Tapirus terrestris), large rodents, and primates in flooded forests of the Pacaya-Samiria National Reserve using camera trap capture rates, density from distance transects, and participatory interviews with Cocama villagers from 2009 to 2018. Peccaries, deer, and large rodents are recovering from population declines that occurred during extreme floods, which suggests that hunting levels are allowing these populations to grow. The primates and lowland tapir have healthy population sizes and stable numbers, which suggests people are hunting these species at sustainable levels. Our results indicate that changes in hunting patterns by the Cocama have permitted peccary, deer, and large rodent populations to recover to varying degrees during years of normal flood levels. The Cocama people are adapting to climate change in a way that agrees with conservation goals and reinforces the importance of community-based approaches to conservation in the Amazon.

This study presents an assessment of the variations and trends of ungulate populations presence, abundance, and uses over a decade (2001–2012) in Montes Azules Biosphere Reserve (MABR) and in a sample of neighboring communities of the Lacandon Forest, Mexico. During two periods of study (1998–2001 and 2010–2012), abundances (distance sampling and camera-trapping) and uses (interviews and participant observation) of five ungulate species (Baird’s tapir, Tapirus bairdii; white-lipped peccary, Tayassu pecari; collared peccary, Pecari tajacu; red-brocket deer, Mazama temama; and white-tailed deer, Odocoileus virginianus) were assessed in four sites within MABR and in eight surrounding communities. Abundances based on direct sightings and camera-trapping were considerably higher in slightly hunted sites inside MABR than in the sorrounding communities for Baird’s tapir and the white-lipped peccary, but not for the other species. There were variations in the abundances (based on direct sightings) of all species between 2001 and 2012: Baird’s tapir declined (−59.7%), while the white-tailed deer (421%), white-lipped peccary (64%), collared peccary (37%), and red-brocket deer (22%) increased their abundances. These variations may be related to regional changes in the landscape in sinergy with social and cultural shifts in the communities of the Lacandon Forest. The collared peccary had the highest mean harvest rate (0.61 individuals/km2/year) in the study area, followed by the red-brocket deer (0.36), white-tailed deer (0.29), white-lipped peccary (0.07), and Baird’s tapir (0.02). Significantly higher harvest rates of ungulates were detected in 2012 compared to those estimated in 2001, probably due to a higher availability of access roads and firearms for hunters in 2012, combined with demographic growth and prevalent poverty of households in the communities of the study area.

Primate and ungulate responses to teak agroforestry in a southern Amazonian landscape

Chacoan peccary (Catagonus wagneri, 2n=20) is the most endangered of three extant species of Tayassuidae. Its karyotype has been studied only by differential chromosome staining methods so far. To establish a comparative cytogenetic map of the peccary, we used cross-species hybridization with porcine (Sus scrofa, 2n=38) painting probes. Painting revealed 30 evolutionary conserved autosomal segments between pig and peccary. The q-arm of the submetacentric chromosome X is homologous to the porcine X chromosome, while the p-arm is composed of heterochromatin. Nucleolar organizer regions were detected on chromosomes 8 and 9 which are homologous to pig chromosomes 8 and 4/18, respectively. Fusions of chromosomes homologous to pig chromosomes 4/7 and 4/18 and fission of chromosome 7 are synapomorphic characters shared by Catagonus wagneri and Tayassu pecari but not by Pecari tajacu. Our results confirmed a high rate of karyotype evolution in Tayassuidae and a closer relationship of Catagonus wagneri with Tayassu pecari than with Pecari tajacu.

The relationship between diet and biomass was examined in the Amazonian ungulates (red brocket deer, grey brocket deer, collared peccary, white-lipped peccary, and lowland tapir) of Northeastern Peru. Tropical forest ungulates have lower biomasses than savanna or grassland ungulates, because in tropical forests the majority of primary production occurs in the canopy, well out of reach from terrestrial herbivores. Within the Amazonian ungulates, species that supplement their diet with animal material, namely the peccaries, obtain a greater crude and metabolic biomass, and higher reproductive rates than the purely herbivorous species. Omnivory appears to help terrestrial herbivores inhabiting closed canopy forests overcome some effects of food limitation.

First phylogenetic analysis of Mesoamerican brocket deer Mazama pandora and Mazama temama (Cetartiodactyla: Cervidae) based on mitochondrial sequences: Implications for Neotropical deer evolution