Abstract
Wear and tear from tyres significantly contributes to the flow of (micro-)plastics into the environment. This paper compiles the fragmented knowledge on tyre wear and tear characteristics, amounts of particles emitted, pathways in the environment, and the possible effects on humans. The estimated per capita emission ranges from 0.23 to 4.7 kg/year, with a global average of 0.81 kg/year. The emissions from car tyres (100%) are substantially higher than those of other sources of microplastics, e.g., airplane tyres (2%), artificial turf (12–50%), brake wear (8%) and road markings (5%). Emissions and pathways depend on local factors like road type or sewage systems. The relative contribution of tyre wear and tear to the total global amount of plastics ending up in our oceans is estimated to be 5–10%. In air, 3–7% of the particulate matter (PM2.5) is estimated to consist of tyre wear and tear, indicating that it may contribute to the global health burden of air pollution which has been projected by the World Health Organization (WHO) at 3 million deaths in 2012. The wear and tear also enters our food chain, but further research is needed to assess human health risks. It is concluded here that tyre wear and tear is a stealthy source of microplastics in our environment, which can only be addressed effectively if awareness increases, knowledge gaps on quantities and effects are being closed, and creative technical solutions are being sought. This requires a global effort from all stakeholders; consumers, regulators, industry and researchers alike.
Highlights
The global production of thermoplastics has grown rapidly since the start of its large-scale production around the 1950s, reaching 322 million tonnes/year in 2015 [1]
Tyre wear and tear by no means is the only source of phthalates esters [76], these results suggest that airborne plastic particles can be transported over long distances and may be deposited into our oceans
We review the available toxicity studies with tyre wear and tear and discuss its toxic potential based on its contribution to PM2.5 and the global health burden attributed to air pollution
Summary
The global production of thermoplastics has grown rapidly since the start of its large-scale production around the 1950s, reaching 322 million tonnes/year in 2015 [1]. Pollution of the environment with plastics is recognized as a serious global threat because it can negatively affect human health, aquatic organisms, as well as the economy [2,6,7,8]. Plastics end up in the ocean either as large pieces, macroplastics, microplastics (≤5 mm) or nanoplastics (≤100 nm) [9]. Several studies have suggested that wear and tear from car tyres is an important source of microplastics in the environment [10,11,12,13]. The aim of the present review is to bring together the fragmented knowledge on wear and tear of car tyres emitted into the environment and provide a global assessment of the implications for human health of this emerging source of microplastics. These numbers have been produced in a first attempt to explore the extent of the problem
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