Water Quality and Socio-economic Studies of the Pumdi Environment of Keibul Lamjao National Park, Loktak Lake, Manipur, India

Keibul Lamjao National Park (KLNP), Loktak lake Manipur, north-east India which is one of the 25 Ramsar sites of international importance and the biggest fresh water Lake in India. Macrophytes of the floating Phumdi mat environment of KLNP play an important role in the aquatic environment. An investigation was planned during the period of about three years from March, 2010 to December 2012, to study the diversity pattern of habitats of macrophytes available in six study sites of KLNP viz., 1.Kumbi, 2.Khordak, 3.Keibul, 4.Toya, 5. Nongmaikhong and 6. Sargam. All total 85 dominant plant species were recorded. Maximum plant species (49) was observed in Site-1 Kumbi (Altitude-780m) and minimum (27) in Site-3 Keibul (Altitude-772). The variation of plant species may be because of the slight variation of altitude. As the six study sites are distributed as floating aquatic environment in KLNP Loktak Lake, there is favourable place of the plants in higher altitude and altitude represents a complex gradient along which many environmental variables change concomitantly. In all the six study sites, common distribution of ten dominant plant macrophytes viz., Ageratum conizoides, Hedychium coronarium, Leersia hexandra, Oenanthe javanica, Phragmites karka, Polygonum sagittatum, Saccharum munja, Thelypteris interrupta and Zizania latifolia was noticed. Individual dominant plant was recorded in other sites also viz., Azola piñata in site-6; Xanthium atrumarium, Polygonum orientale, Dichrocephala latifolia and Cymbopogon citratus in site-2; Arundo plinii, Cuscuta reflexa, Gnaphalium luteo-album, Hydrilla verticillata, Marsilia minuta, Saccolepis interrupta, Selvenia cuculata and Utricularia spp. in site-1. Variation of IVI value of dominant plant species was observed in this study. Even though 85 dominant plants were selected for all the 6 sites, however, maximum plant richness expressed in IVI was recorded in case of Zizania latifolia (Site-5, IVI-87.5) and minimum IVI in case of Xanthium strumarium (Site-2, IVI-1.13). The diversity pattern and habitats of macrophytes in KLNP Phumdi environment might be due to water availability along the altitudinal gradient and other environmental factors suited in the study sites and expected to be an important factor affecting the survival and fecundity of plant population. We need to conserve the natural habitat of KLNP thereby maintaining the luxuriant growth of the seasonal and perennial, macrophytes, so as to maintain the natural flora and fauna of the park. These plants are the food of man and animal therefore, it needs a proper care and attention to protect them from over exploitation. Considering the diversity pattern of habitats of Macrophytes in KLNP, a floating mat Phumdi environment with high floral diversity and unique vegetation assemblage, it has been suggested that this track and adjoining sites should be declared as ecologically sensitive area not only the World Heritage Site.

Seasonal variations in the water quality of a tropical wetland dominated by floating meadows and its implication for conservation of Ramsar wetlands

Keibul Lamjao National Park (KLNP), a floating park in Loktak Lake, Manipur (India) was studied from Winter (WIN) to Post Monsoon (POM) for its zooplankton composition and some selected water parameters. The resultant data were subjected to multivariate techniques–Principal Component Analysis (PCA) and Canonical Correspondence Analysis (CCA). Analyses of water parameters with PCA revealed that the first PC axis (PC1) accounts for maximum variance in the seasonal data, explaining a variability of 91%. The PCA revealed that the seasonal variability in water parameters was due to the wet and dry cycle of seasons and the stations were distinguished on the basis of transparency and turbidity. Zooplankton abundance was dominated by copepods followed by cladocerans. Temporally, abundance of copepods reached a maximum during Post-monsoon (POM) (3 880 ind./L). Spatially, S6 was found to be most abundant of the other stations in zooplankton. Copepodites and nauplii larvae were the major components of zooplankton. The Rotifera were the least abundant among the three zooplankton groups. Brachionus formed the major component of Rotifera zooplankton at all the stations during the study period. In the Cladocera, Macrothrix was present during all the four seasons, while Pleuroxus, Oxyurella, Kurzia and, Diaphanosoma were rare. The CCA shows that maximal temporal variability in zooplankton abundance was explained by temperature and rainfall. ANOVA revealed no significant diff erence in mean zooplankton abundance among the seasons, but there was a statistically significant diff erence among the sites.

Loktak Lake is the largest fresh water lake in North East India. The lake is situated at Moirang in the Bishnupur District, Manipur about 48 km to South from Imphal city. This Lake extends about 287 km2. Loktak Lake has an indispensable relationship with the people of the state since time immemorial from socio- cultural and economic viewpoints. Many edible plants are available in and around the Lake. The food plants which are not commonly available in the market and those which are not commonly utilized as food throughout the country are considered as non-conventional food plants. There are various plants which grow in the lake as submerged, free floating, rooted with floating leaves, emergents, etc. and some are found to grow on the floating humus (Phum). The main food of the Brow Antlered Deer (Rucervus eldi eldi) which is found only in Keibul Lamjao National Wildlife Sanctuary near the Loktak Lake is a variety of young shoots of grasses, herbaceous plants, Zizania latifolia, etc. Some important non-conventional food plants available in and around the Lake are Hedichium flavum (Loklei), Alpinia allughas (Pullei), Euryale ferox (Thangjing), Nymphaea stellata (Thariktha), Nymphaea alba (Tharo angouba), Oenanthe javanica (Komprek), Ipomoea aquatica (Kolamni), Nelumbo nucifera (Thambou, Thamchet and Thamna khenjong), Sagittaria sagittifolia (Koukha), Trapa bispinosa (Heikak) Zizania latifolia (kambong) etc. Some plants such as Ipomoea aquatica (Kolamni) and Alpinia allughas (Pullei), Neptunia oleracea (Eshing Ekaithabi), Ludwigia adscendens (Eshing Kundo), etc. have medicinal importance. These food plants are very rich in vitamins and minerals.

Aquatic insect diversity of a protected area, Keibul Lamjao National Park in Manipur, North East India

The drinking water in the apartment is stored in reservior tank and thereafter supplied each household. In case the drinking water is stored too long or insanitary, tap water might change in quality. This study was carried out to evaluate the physico-chemical and microbiological conditions of 36 samples of tap water of apartments compared to 18 samples of tap water of independence houses in Taegu City from May to October, 1987. Main findings are summarized as follows : PH values were within normal range in all samples. Samples less than 0.2ppm in residual chlorine accounted for 16.7% in the appartment and 5.6% in the independence house. Nitrite nitrogen was detected 2.8% of apartment samples only. Among the total of 54 samples, 11.1% of the apartment and independence samples were over the normal value in standard plate count. Samples more than 1.8 of most probable number(MPN) accounted for 27.8% in the apartment and 33.3% in the independence house. In result of test for residual chlorine, nitrite nitrogen, standard plate count, and MPN, the proportion of the samples revealed inappropriated in respect of drinking water standards. In case of all sorts of tests was 2.7% in apartment and nothing in independence houses, in case of 3 sorts of tests was 2.7% in apartment and 5.6% in independence houses, in case of 2 sorts of tests was 8.3% in apartment and 5.6% in independence houses, and in case of only 1 test was 25.0% in apartment and 22.2% in independence houses. Correlation between residual chlorine and standard plate count, and between standard plate count and MPN were observed. It was found that the more years since construction of apartment were, the worse tap water was in quality.

<div><p><em>Flowering calendar of a particular area will give the information of the period and duration of flowering among plants. The purpose of the study is to investigate the presence of the habitat of some dominant macrophytes in Keibul Lamjao National Park (a Ramsar site) which have ethnobotanical relationships with human beings (the lake dwellers in particular and tourist in general) and wild animals. Flowering calendar of six study sites viz., Keibul, Nongmaikhong, Kumbi, Khordak, Sargam and Toyaching were studied and monthly flowering calendars were taken for two year period (2010 to 2011). Flowering calendars of the macrophytes were surveyed by following standard methodologies and comparison of the stages of flowering period of 6 study sites was incorporated. Maximum number of flowering plants (44) was recorded in Sargam, Khordak (32), Kumbi (30), Nongmaikhong (29) during the period September to November. Whereas, Toyaching reached 35, Keibul recorded lowest plant numbers (14) during the period June to August. Four plant species viz., Ageratum conyzoides, Alternanthera philoxeroides, Leersia hexandra and Hedychium coronarium were found throughout the year in all the 6 sites. From the findings, it can be concluded that flowering calendar will give the information of plants which are used as fodder for the wild animals like Sangai (Rucervus eldii eldii McClelland), an endangered deer species in this globe and ethnobotanically important plants of the lake dwellers as food, medicinal plants and allergens, thereby maintaining health status of man and animals. Conservation is required by controlling the human anthropogenic harassments, thereby maintaining the luxuriant growth of the seasonal and perennial, macrophytes observed during the study of flowering calendar, so as to maintain and conserve the natural flora and fauna of the park.</em></p></div>

An in-depth understanding of carbon dynamics and ecosystem productivity is essential for conservation and management of different ecosystems. Ecosystem dynamics and carbon budget are assessed by estimating net ecosystem production (NEP) across different global ecosystems. An ecological productivity assessment of forest and floating meadow ecosystems in Keibul Lamjao National Park (KLNP), Manipur, North East India, was conducted using the multi-criteria decision-making process namely, gray relational analysis (GRA). The analysis was performed on 24 selected criterions classified either as "higher-the-better" or "lower-the-better" based on their degree of influence on the carbon budget. Floating meadows exhibited a higher production of aboveground and belowground biomass and a higher total mortality and decay. Furthermore, the study found that floating meadows exhibited a higher soil organic carbon (SOC) and net soil organic matter (SOM) than the forest ecosystem. The forest ecosystem showed higher total respiration (RT), heterotrophic respiration (RH), and autotrophic respiration (RA) than floating meadows. Floating meadows exhibited a higher net primary productivity (NPP) of 616.49 ± 33.87 gCm-2year-1 than the forest ecosystem, which has a NPP of 566.64 ± 65.26 gCm-2year-1. Similarly, floating meadows have higher NEP (495.25 ± 36.46 gCm-2year-1) than forest ecosystems (418.39 ± 65.76 gCm-2year-1). These characteristics have a significant influence on the carbon budget in floating meadows as compared to forest ecosystems, as shown by larger values of gray relational coefficient (GRC) in GRA. The floating meadows ecosystem (0.82) obtained 54.72% gain in gray relational grades (GRG) value with the forest ecosystem (0.53). This study might help in improving KLNP and other adjutant areas for conservation and management policies from the vital information given on the importance of wetlands in carbon dynamics and ecosystem productivity.

Surface sediments (n = 29) from Loktak Lake, the largest freshwater lake in northeastern India, were studied for geochemistry, mineralogy and the heavy metal pollution of the lake sediments was assessed. The XRD spectra of bulk sediments showed the dominance of quartz and clay fractions showed the dominance of illite and chlorite. The major oxides consist dominantly of SiO2, Al2O3 and FeO with low concentrations of K2O, Na2O and CaO. The depletion of CaO, Na2O and K2O compared to upper continental crust, post-Archean average shale and North-American shale composite indicated moderate to strong weathering, recycling of the source rock and their removal during transportation. The chemical index of alteration values (76.86–84.98) also suggested moderate to extreme chemical weathering of the Loktak Lake catchment lithologies. The mean concentrations (in mg/kg) of Zn (117 ± 23.45), Co (34 ± 13.67), Fe (7 ± 1.38 wt%), Cu (67 ± 12.87), Cr (282 ± 45.25) and Ni (194 ± 30.12) are about 2–4 times higher than that of the upper continental crust, except for Mn (425 ± 168.99 mg/kg) and Pb (17 ± 7.47 mg/kg). The heavy metal concentrations follow the trend of Fe > Mn > Cr > Ni > Zn > Cu > Co > Pb. The assessment of heavy metal pollution using enrichment factor, geo-accumulation index and modified degree of contamination suggested non-contamination to moderate contamination of sediments. According to sediment quality guidelines, the sediment-dwelling biota could be affected by the higher concentrations of Ni and Cr. The mean-effect range median-quotient suggests medium–high to high potential of the effects of heavy metal pollution. The uniformly higher concentration of heavy metals in general and Ni and Cr, in particular, indicated the dominance of natural (ophiolitic) sources with no or little, if any, anthropogenic influence.

Assessing seasonal variation of diffusive nitrous oxide emission from freshwater wetland in Keibul Lamjao National Park, Manipur Northeast India

An assessment of the heavy metal content and biological pollution burden of an abattoir dumpsite, an automobile carwash, the Ikpoba River, and a private water borehole located near the abattoir dumpsite was conducted in Benin City in Southern Nigeria, during the rainy and dry seasons. The water samples’ pH was lower than the permissible values, with the river water displaying color and possessing a slight odor. Iron concentrations exceeded the permissible limits for drinking water at all four of the sampling stations in the study area, although not in samples collected from the control station, station 5, a public water borehole that is located some distance away. Lead values were higher than drinking water standards in the samples collected from stations 1 through 4, with some exceptions during the rainy season. Copper, nickel, arsenic, chromium, and aluminum were detected in three out of the four sampling stations located within the study area. However, these metals were detected at levels that were within regulatory limits. The detection of three metals (iron, lead, and zinc) within the study area at levels exceeding drinking water limits suggested that a complete cycle of movement of pollutants into the sampling stations had occurred. Significant biological presences were also detected, as the Ikpoba River water had a standard plate count (SPC) of 130 most probable number (MPN) and a 22 MPN presumptive coliform count (PCC) or 22 MPN. However, Escherichia coli (E. coli) confirmatory tests recorded less than 2 MPN in both seasons. The study has shown that the quality of water in the river may be compromised by effluent discharges from the dumpsite and the carwash channel. Therefore, this situation requires more stringent enforcement of local environmental laws and maintenance of safe distances between domestic and industrial waste sources and domestic or private water wells.

Organic fertilizers contain complete nutrients needed by plants, such as humic acid and fulvic acid, that can promote plant growth and increase the population of beneficial microbes in the soil. Algae can be an organic fertilizer in extract preparations that can increase plant growth and improve soil composition. The calculated number of microbes from the soil on corn land with the application of algae extracts affects the population of soil microbes both by standard plate count (SPC) and most probable number (MPN) methods. The total number of bacteria by SPC in the control soil was 3.1 × 105 CFU/g, while the total fungus was only 1.7 × 104 CFU/g upon applying 5% algae extract. The most microalgae by MPN in the control ground was estimated to be 2.6 × 104 cells/g. Therefore, the application of algae extract affects the number of soil microbes on corn land compared to control soil. The algae extract reduces the number of bacteria and algae but increases the number of fungi on cornfields.
 
 Keywords: algae extracts, cornfields, soil microbes

Abstract. Climate change is likely to have major implications for wetland ecosystems, which will include altered water level regimes due to modifications in local and catchment hydrology. However, substantial uncertainty exists in the precise impacts of climate change on wetlands due in part to uncertainty in GCM projections. This paper explores the impacts of climate change upon river discharge within three sub-catchments of Loktak Lake, an internationally important wetland in northeast India. This is achieved by running pattern-scaled GCM output through distributed hydrological models (developed using MIKE SHE) of each sub-catchment. The impacts of climate change upon water levels within Loktak Lake are subsequently investigated using a water balance model. Two groups of climate change scenarios are investigated. Group 1 uses results from seven different GCMs for an increase in global mean temperature of 2 °C, the purported threshold of ''dangerous'' climate change, whilst Group 2 is based on results from the HadCM3 GCM for increases in global mean temperature between 1 °C and 6 °C. Results from the Group 1 scenarios show varying responses between the three sub-catchments. The majority of scenario-sub-catchment combinations (13 out of 21) indicate increases in discharge which vary from <1% to 42% although, in some cases, discharge decreases by as much as 20%. Six of the GCMs suggest overall increases in river flow to Loktak Lake (2–27%) whilst the other results in a modest (6%) decline. In contrast, the Group 2 scenarios lead to an almost linear increase in total river flow to Loktak Lake with increasing temperature (up to 27% for 6 °C), although two sub-catchments experience reductions in mean discharge for the smallest temperature increases. In all but one Group 1 scenario, and all the Group 2 scenarios, Loktak Lake water levels are higher, regularly reaching the top of a downstream hydropower barrage that impounds the lake and necessitating the release of water for barrage structural stability. Although elevated water levels may permit enhanced abstraction for irrigation and domestic uses, future increases in hydropower generation are limited by existing infrastructure. The higher water levels are likely to exacerbate existing ecological deterioration within the lake as well as enhancing problems of flooding of lakeside communities.

Fishery is a significant sector of the Indian economy from the point of view of food supplies, foreign exchange and also for its potential to generate employment. The North Eastern (NE) region of India has been recognized as a global hot spot of fresh water bodies. The annual growth rate of fish production in NE India registered a positive growth over the years indicating a healthy trend. The fish production of Manipur is mostly contributed by the Loktak Lake which is the largest freshwater lake in NE India. Population of Manipur consumes fish in various forms which includes fermented, sun dried, smoked, pickles, freshly cooked. Keeping in view present research paper in an overview to assess the value addition at each stage of marketing of fish of Loktak Lake. A sample of 60 numbers of fishermen and 10 numbers of different intermediaries were taken into consideration for this research. A standard analytical technique has been employed to analyse the data to draw in inferences from the results. The findings of the paper demonstrated that the local trader -cum- retailer earned a huge profit which was higher than the profit earned by the fishermen. Therefore, the study recommends encouraging the maximum involvement of fishermen in value addition process at their level to harvest the higher profits. The state fish department must lead to encourage the fishermen with latest tools and techniques for value addition.

Background : The role of water in the transmission of diarrhoea has been established. The World Health Organization (WHO) reported that diarrhoea disease were among the 10 major causes of death in young children in 11 African, Asia and South American countries. Aim : To investigate the incidence of Salmonella and Vibrio species as aetiological agents of diarrhoea in water bodies in Rivers and Bayelsa States. Methods : A total of twenty water samples were collected from rivers and cultured for the various microorganisms.The total heterotrophic counts were determined by Standard Plate Count (SPC) method. Salmonella and Vibrio species were enumerated by an enrichment procedure in Selenite F broth and Alkaline Peptone water (APW) respectively; cultured on Bismuth sulfite agar (BSA) and Thiosulphate citrate bile salt sucrose (TCBS) agar selective for salmonella and vibrio species respectively. The total coliform counts was determined and the Most Probable Number (MPN) using the multiple tube fermentation technique. Results : The study revealed isolates with various percentage occurrences which include Vibrio (12.1%) and Salmonella (33.3%). Among the coliforms were Escherichia coli (33.3%), Klebsiella (22.2%), Enterobacter (33.3%) and Citrobacter (11.1%).MPN values for enumeration of coliforms ranged from 80/100 ml to = 16,000/100 ml of the water samples analysed. Total heterotrophic count per milliliter of the original water sample ranged between 1.0 × 106 and 3.0 ×108 cfu/ml. Conclusion : The water sources examined have proved to be potential sources of diarrhoea organisms and also could lead to disease outbreak because of the significant number of these organisms in these water bodies.