Vocabulary knowledge and reading proficiency in extramural L2 English among ESCAPERS in Norway and Flanders

English language reading skills are important for tertiary students. In Malaysia, tertiary students are required to master the English academic reading for their tertiary studies. However, Malaysian tertiary students’ reading proficiency in English is often found below par, which is attributed to poor reading skills and habits, as well as a lack of motivation to read. The authors believe that extensive reading (ER) should be used to complement intensive reading practiced in tertiary education reading. It is important to learn from past studies the potentials as well as problems with ER, so that teachers and researchers alike can better approach the use of ER in the teaching of English as a second language (ESL) reading. This article reports on the systematic literature review of 32 studies on ER programmes, particularly on its impact on ESL students’ reading proficiency and reading motivation, that were published between 2003 and 2019 and obtained through established research databases. The results of the review found that there are positive impacts of ER on ESL reading, particularly on reading rate and reading comprehension, vocabulary knowledge, and reading motivation, as well as the importance of goal setting and monitoring to ensure the success of ER in ESL reading. The authors suggest implications for teacher practitioners, future researchers and course developers to plan how ER would be a valuable addition to their respective programmes and also provide them with ideas in designing their own unique ER programmes to cater to their students’ needs.

The study aimed to determine the level of reading proficiency among Grade 7 students based on their word reading and comprehension scores. It also evaluated the roles of teachers, parents, and students in achieving students' reading proficiency. A descriptive-correlational research design was employed. The respondents were 157 randomly selected Grade 7 students from three public high schools in Bayawan City. Validated questionnaires were used to gather data, and the results were analyzed using mean, percentage, and Spearman’s Rank Correlation Coefficient. Findings revealed that 30.57% of the students were at the frustration level in terms of word reading scores, while 93.63% were classified as independent readers based on their comprehension scores. When combining both components of reading proficiency, 63.69% of the students were generally categorized as independent readers. The study also showed that teachers generally fulfilled their roles to a high extent(composite mean = 3.52) in supporting students' reading proficiency in English. However, the extent of their involvement in establishing a reading program was only moderate (mean = 3.13). In contrast, both parents (mean = 3.25) and students (mean = 3.38) demonstrated their roles in supporting reading development to a moderate extent. Finally, a significant negative correlation (Spearman’s rho = -0.332, p < 0.01) was found between the teachers’ role in establishing a reading program and the students’ word reading and comprehension scores.

ABSTRACTIn this study, Spanish-English bilinguals and English monolinguals used brief English contexts to choose among possible meanings for unfamiliar words. Two types of errors were compared: transfer errors, which were answers consistent with Spanish, but not English, syntax, and nontransfer errors, which were inconsistent with the syntax of both languages. Nontransfer errors were found to be negatively correlated with reading proficiency in both Spanish and English. Transfer errors, on the other hand, were positively correlated with reading proficiency in Spanish and were unrelated to reading proficiency in English.

The primary purpose of this study is to explore the roles of anxiety and motivation in EFL Learning in the junior high school classroom. Statistical analyses were employed to determine (1) whether young EFL learners feel any anxiety in the English classroom, (2) whether both language anxiety and learning motivation are significantly related to young learners' English reading proficiency, (3) whether both language anxiety and learning motivation are significantly related to young learners' English vocabulary knowledge, and (4) whether years of taking English lessons, including extracurricular ones outside the regular English classroom, have any significant relation to both students' language anxiety and motivation. The findings supported the prevalence of certain learner anxiety among the studied junior high school students. Also, students who had more English learning experience were less likely to feel anxiety in learning the foreign language. Although these young learners tended to be susceptible to apprehension over negative evaluation from their peers and to have low confidence in their own ability, learner anxiety did not seem to affect their learning motivation and language performance. Only motivation was found to be significantly correlated with both English reading proficiency and vocabulary knowledge. A high and positive correlation was found between intrinsic motivation and student language achievement among these young adolescents.

In this study, we ascertain the links between the four dimensions of L2 vocabulary knowledge and L2 reading proficiency and the moderating effects of vocabulary fluency. For this purpose, 312 EFL Chinese university student volunteers were recruited from six majors at one tertiary university in Southeast China, and they took a series of vocabulary tests and the IELTS reading test. SEM and PING’S SINGLE INDICATOR INTERACTION methods were adopted to analyze the collected test data. The results indicated that (a) receptive lexical knowledge has a much closer link with reading proficiency than productive vocabulary knowledge; (b) among the four dimensions of L2 vocabulary knowledge, receptive vocabulary depth has a closer connection with reading proficiency than receptive vocabulary breadth; (c) vocabulary fluency has a substantial moderating effect on the connection between L2 vocabulary and reading proficiency; and (d) multiple regression analysis verifies that whole-word knowledge explains 49% of the variance in L2 reading testing grades. We discuss theoretical and instructional implications, focusing on the role of the four dimensions of L2 vocabulary knowledge in the vocabulary assessment criteria for developing L2 reading proficiency.

Vocabulary knowledge is fundamental to language development, learning, and use. It is commonly held that without sufficient vocabulary knowledge, little can be communicated effectively in a language. However, in the English as a second language context, knowledge of vocabulary, the vocabulary size that guarantees high language proficiency, and how it is measured, remains scattered in individual studies, hence unclear to many researchers, teachers, and language learners. This paper reviews studies on vocabulary knowledge necessary for proficiency in English as a second language. The aim is to synthesise, analyse, and provide a comprehensive picture of the scholarly development of vocabulary knowledge and language proficiency research in L2 learning of English. The Protocol, Search, Appraisal, Synthesis, Analysis, and Reporting (PSALSAR) methodology provides an analytical framework for this study. The study synthesises and thematically reports insights on vocabulary size and knowledge required for second language proficiency, and the various approaches/tools for measuring vocabulary knowledge in English as a second language. Findings reveal that 98% of lexical coverage, which translates into the most frequent 2000-word families, is sufficient for the comprehension of reading a variety of texts. For productive skills, the coverage of 4000–5000-word families is necessary for students’ speaking and writing skills. Relatedly, knowing a word means knowing its features, behaviour, and use in various contexts. To effectively measure vocabulary size, the Vocabulary Levels Test (VLT), Academic Word Levels (AWL), and Vocabulary Size Test (VST) are used. To measure deep knowledge of vocabulary, the Vocabulary Knowledge Scale (VKS), Word Associates Test (WAT), and Word Part Levels Test (WPLT) are commonly used. The understanding of the vocabulary knowledge requirements is crucial for setting vocabulary learning goals, designing curricula, and developing appropriate vocabulary learning materials.

Drawing upon the division of labor between orthographic and phonological information, this study investigated whether and how L2 reading proficiency moderates learners’ reliance on phonological and orthographic information in retrieving word meanings. A total of 136 Chinese collegiate students who learned English as a foreign language (EFL) completed English reading proficiency tests and were divided into higher and lower reading proficiency groups using an extreme-group approach. Behavioral tasks were used to measure the participants’ sensitivity to and processing skills of orthographic and phonological information. The analysis showed that the reliance on phonological and orthographic information differed significantly across L2 reading proficiency groups: The higher reading proficiency group was sensitive to both phonological and orthographic information within words, while the lower reading proficiency group was only sensitive to orthographic information; only orthographic processing skills significantly contributed to the word meaning retrieval of individuals in the higher reading proficiency group, while phonological processing skills were the only predictor for the lower reading proficiency group. These results suggest that the use of phonological and orthographic information vary as a function of L2 learners’ English reading proficiency. Implications regarding the changing patterns of L1 influences and the language-universal and language-specific aspects of word recognition were discussed.

Reading Scrambled-Lettered Texts (SLT) is a complex activity, related to many factors, including language proficiency. This study investigates the possibility of using SLT as an integrative method to assess language and reading proficiency in English as a Foreign Language (EFL). A SLT reading test in English was applied to ten Brazilian EFL learners and the results were compared to their global and reading scores in the TOEFL ITP. Despite the limitation of the sample size, a negative correlation between the TOEFL scores and the number of errors in the SLT test was found. The results were significant in terms of p-value in four out of six cases and the presence of an outlier suggested an even higher correlation and relevance. A Portuguese SLT test was also applied to the sample, and the participants, who had a similar level of education, presented homogeneous results, contrasting with those found in the English test.

Learners’ metacognitive reading strategies support their attempts to draw meaning from texts and to overcome comprehension difficulties. For second language readers, such strategies may compensate for lack of language proficiency while reading. Taking a sample from a country that ranked last in the PISA 2018 reading assessment, this study aims to investigate potential discrepancies in how students evaluate the usefulness of specific reading strategies and how these conceptions are associated with related to the students’ reading proficiency. We explored the association between metacognitive reading strategies with reading proficiency by analysing data from a nationally representative sample of 15-year-old students who participated in the PISA 2018 (N = 6591). Awareness of different reading strategies was compared using repeated measures ANOVA; relationships with reading proficiency were examined using regression analysis. Self-reports on metacognitive reading strategies accounted for a significant portion of the variation in Filipino students’ English reading proficiency, after controlling for SES, sex, and number of books at home. The reading strategies perceived as most useful were not the most strongly associated with reading proficiency, suggesting that students may not be aware of which reading strategies are helpful in learning to read in English. The results indicate variations in the students’ awareness of which strategies aid in their reading comprehension and point to the need to better understand how effective reading strategy instruction is taught to and is engaged by Filipino students in their reading classes.

This study explored the differences between high and low reading proficiency students in terms of language learning strategies in Taiwanese context. A total of 119 freshmen with various majors in one university in central Taiwan participated in the present study. With the use of the Strategy Inventory for Language Learning Questionnaire (SILL) and the administration of the reading section of the General English Proficiency Test (GEPT), the results indicated that high English reading proficiency students had a significantly higher average frequency in overall strategy use in four strategy categories than did low English reading proficiency counterparts. Specifically, high English proficiency students used 15 strategies significantly more frequently than low English proficiency counterparts. Such differences were discussed; meanwhile, suggestions for further research were provided at the end of the study.

Grouping students of similar ability for English instruction has become a common practice in higher education in Taiwan. The purpose of this study is to investigate whether EFL college students of different abilities are able to make significant progress in their language performance in homogeneously grouped classes over time. The sample was 122 freshmen who had been assigned to different levels of English classes after entering the university. Statistical methods were conducted to address the following research questions: (1) whether ability-grouped students' listening and reading proficiencies significantly improved over the one-year period after being grouped, (2) whether the overall English proficiency of homogeneously grouped EFL students significantly improved over time, and (3) whether there are significant level differences in students' progress in English listening, reading, and overall proficiency scores over the duration of the study. The findings indicate that students at all ability levels attain significantly higher English proficiency scores over time, except for the reading proficiency scores for the high-ability group. Both the timing and level effects are highly significant on students' progress in English reading and listening performance.

This study intended to ascertain the pupils’ proficiency in reading after having participated in the reading intervention project “READINNG” or Reading Enhancement and Development Initiatives in the New Normal for Grade-schoolers. It utilized the Functional Literacy Assessment Tool (FLAT) for Functional Literacy Assessment tool to ascertain the level of reading performance of the pupils as well as their extent of improvement after the implementation of READINNG. There were 38 participants in the study who were the target beneficiaries of the intervention project. They are from the extension partner school of Caraga State University-College of Education. Data revealed that before the intervention, the level of proficiency of the Pupils in reading Filipino is mostly on the Nothing level, hence intervention is needed. However, after the implementation of READINNG, there are 15 pupils who can read at Paragraph Level, 8 at Story Reading level, and 5 at Story Comprehension and no one is registered at Local Material Level and none are identified as LSENs. Also, a significant improvement is found in the pupils' level of reading proficiency in English after utilizing the Pupil Reading Intervention Materials. The data further imply that the level of proficiency of the pupils in reading in both Filipino and English increased. Hence, READINNG as intervention can improve the pupils’ level of proficiency in reading.

Filipino students ranked last in reading proficiency among all countries/territories in the PISA 2018, with only 19% meeting the minimum (Level 2) standard. It is imperative to understand the range of factors that contribute to low reading proficiency, specifically variables that can be the target of interventions to help students with poor reading proficiency. We used machine learning approaches, specifically binary classification methods, to identify the variables that best predict low (Level 1b and lower) vs. higher (Level 1a or better) reading proficiency using the Philippine PISA data from a nationally representative sample of 15-year-old students. Several binary classification methods were applied, and the best classification model was derived using support vector machines (SVM), with 81.2% average test accuracy. The 20 variables with the highest impact in the model were identified and interpreted using a socioecological perspective of development and learning. These variables included students’ home-related resources and socioeconomic constraints, learning motivation and mindsets, classroom reading experiences with teachers, reading self-beliefs, attitudes, and experiences, and social experiences in the school environment. The results were discussed with reference to the need for a systems perspective to addresses poor proficiency, requiring interconnected interventions that go beyond students’ classroom reading.

There have been several issues about the reading skills and abilities of children in Ghana, and how reading proficiency might influence the academic performance of children. In view of the above, this study examined the influence of reading proficiency on the academic performance of lower primary school children in Accra. Using a cross-sectional survey design, 383 participants (Grades 1-3) were sampled in Accra. The children were administered questionnaires that measured their English reading proficiency, paternal involvement, maternal involvement, financial situation, and demographic characteristics as well as their academic performance. Results showed that reading proficiency was significantly and positively related with children’s performance on all standard performance tests after controlling for paternal involvement, maternal involvement, financial situation, and age. Type of school significantly affected academic performance, however, no gender differences were observed in the children’s academic performance. The implications for educational practice and research are espoused.

Virtual communication holds the promise of enabling low-cost professional development at scale, but the benefits of in-person interaction might be difficult to replicate. We report on an experiment in South Africa comparing on-site with virtual coaching of public primary school teachers. After three years, on-site coaching improved students' English oral language and reading proficiency (0.31 and 0.13 SD, respectively). Virtual coaching had a smaller impact on English oral language proficiency (0.12 SD), no impact on English reading proficiency, and an unintended negative effect on home language literacy. Classroom observations show that on-site coaching improved teaching practices, and virtual coaching led to larger crowding-out of home language teaching time. Implementation and survey data suggest technology itself was not a barrier to implementation, but rather that in-person contact enabled more accountability and support.