Visualizing Land Cover and Land-Cover Change: A Review of Existing Methods and Remaining Challenges

The study aimed to assess the changes that have occurred in land use and land cover within the Maasai Mara landscape using remote sensed data from 1997 to 2017; examine the elephant distribution in relation to land use and land cover changes within the Mara landscape and to determine changes in elephant home ranges in relation to Land use and cover changes in the Mara landscape. In examining the land use and land cover changes on the elephant ranges and distribution, an integrated methodological approach was employed in which the changes that have taken place within the study area over a period of 20 years was determined by analysis involving a 10-year changes in land use and land cover using three epochs from 1997, 2007 and 2017 to generate six land use classes. The Maasai Mara Landscape (MML) supports one of the richest wildlife populations remaining on earth but over the last century, has experienced transformation notably through conversion of former rangelands into croplands. Elephants have both temporal and spatial requirements, which if not provided, render them vulnerable to the land-use practices. The study assessed land use and vegetation cover changes that have occurred and their effects on the elephant movements and distribution within the MML using an integrated methodological approach. The analysis revealed changes in land use and land cover classes over a period of 20 years for the three epochs, from 1997, 2007 and 2017. Elephant’s distribution has been restricted to areas of high vegetation densities within specific habitats hence accelerating the rate of habitat destruction and degradation due to their high densities. These changes have drastically reduced forage for elephants necessitating them to travel longer distances out of their home range in search for food. Human beings have caused land use and cover changes which have detrimental impacts on the ecosystem and ecosystem services. The Maasai Mara landscape supports one of the richest wildlife populations remaining on earth but over the last century, it has experienced land transformation notably through conversion of former rangelands used mainly for tourism and production of grains such as wheat. Land outside the national parks and the reserve is important to the future of elephant existence in Kenya. Little is known about how human occupation on these landscapes negatively affects elephants (Loxodonta africana) habitats, movement and ranges. This has been confirmed by the current continuous demarcation/fencing of land in most areas in Narok County. Elephants like other landscape species, have both temporal and spatial requirements, which if not provided, will render them vulnerable to the land use practices of people. The study aimed to assess the changes that have occurred in land use and land cover within the Maasai Mara landscape using remote sensed data from 1997 to 2017; examine the elephant distribution in relation to land use and land cover changes within the Mara landscape and to determine changes in elephant home ranges in relation to Land use and cover changes in the Mara landscape. The paper describes the different changes that have taken place within the MML and how these changes have affected elephant populations, their trend and distribution within the MML. In examining the land use and land cover changes on the elephant ranges and distribution, an integrated methodological approach was employed in which the changes that have taken place within the study area over a period of 20 years was determined by analysis involving a 10-year changes in land use and land cover using three epochs from 1997, 2007 and 2017 to generate six land use classes. The study found out that there were significant changes of various classes across the years. Forest, water and open shrubs coverages decreased from 1997 to 2017. Classification noted a serious problem within the study area of continuous increase of bare ground coverage across the study years. Elephant populations have been increasing within the area .at an annual rate of 2.69%. The animals are distributed all over the landscape. Distribution of elephants has been restricted to high densities within a specific habitat hence accelerating rate of habitat destruction and degradation due to their high densities within a specific habitat. These changes have reduced drastically foliage for elephants thus necessitating them to travel longer distances in search and as a result increases elephant home ranges.

Accuracy Assessment of NOAA Coastal Change Analysis Program 2006-2010 Land Cover and Land Cover Change Data

A new approach to locating accuracy assessment sample units was used to quantify 2010 land cover accuracy, in addition to being able to make statements about 2006-2010 land cover change mapping accuracy for National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (<small>NOAA</small>) Coastal Change Analysis Program (<small>C-CAP</small>) data. Three customized tiers of sampling strata were created, as discussed, to meet these goals. Stratified random sampling was employed in each stratum with a six out of nine pixel-homogeneity criteria (different from the final minimum mapping unit) required for each sampling unit. Accuracy was assessed for nine regions in the coastal United States with overall accuracy ranging from 82.3 percent to 85.6 percent. Binary change was mapped with 88.7 percent accuracy, with the largest error being errors of commission (71.2 percent user accuracy). This sampling design also allowed for the identification of 137 locations where true change was not mapped, allowing for statements to be made about missed change.

This report presents the results of a study to provide information on the hydrologic effects of potential 21st-century changes in climate, water use, and land cover in the Upper Scioto River Basin, Ohio (from Circleville, Ohio, to the headwaters). A precipitation-runoff model, calibrated on the basis of historical climate and streamflow data, was used to simulate the effects of climate change on streamflows and reservoir water levels at several locations in the basin. Two levels of simulations were done. The first level of simulation (level 1) accounted only for anticipated 21st-century changes in climate and operations of three City of Columbus upground reservoirs located in northwest Delaware County, Ohio. The second level of simulation (level 2) accounted for development-driven changes in land cover and water use in addition to changes in climate and reservoir operations. A statistical change-factor approach was used to construct future climate time series that were used in the precipitationrunoff model to compute time series of future streamflows and reservoir water levels. Monthly change factors were computed by determining differences or fractional changes between baseline historical climate time series and future climate time series consisting of outputs from selected global climate models that were included in the World Climate Research Programme’s Coupled Model Intercomparison Project phase 3 (CMIP3). Eight sets of change factors were determined on the basis of outputs from four global climate models, each of which was run under two greenhouse-gas scenarios (the “A1b” and “A2” scenarios from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change’s 4th assessment). The 4 global climate models whose data were used in this study were selected to represent a wide range of potential climate outcomes as compared to the entire range of potential climate outcomes associated with the 16 global climate models represented in the CMIP3 multimodel dataset. Future land-cover and water-use data were estimated for use in the level-2 precipitation-runoff simulations to account for development-driven changes in land cover and water use. Future land-cover characteristics were estimated for selected future years based on population projections and zoning plans for communities in the basin. Future water-use data for major water suppliers and wastewater-treatment facilities were estimated from current per capita water use, population projections for 2035, and population projections for 2090 assuming full build-out. A statistical change-factor-based approach was used to estimate future water-use characteristics by major water suppliers and wastewater-treatment facilities on the basis of reference-period historical water uses. Annual change factors that were determined for future years other than 2035 and 2090 (when the change factors could be explicitly computed) were estimated by interpolating or extrapolating linearly in time. Water uses by entities other than major water suppliers and wastewater-treatment facilities were assumed to remain unchanged because of uncertainty about if and (or) how they might change. Results from the level-1 simulations were analyzed primarily to facilitate evaluation of climate-driven temporal changes in annual, seasonal, and monthly streamflow and water-level characteristics, as well as in maximum and minimum 7-, 30-, and 180-day average streamflow and reservoir water levels. Results from the level-2 simulations were analyzed to help evaluate and contrast (relative to level-1 results) the effects of the added development-related factors on maximums and minimum 7-, 30-, and 180-day average streamflows and reservoir water levels and duration characteristics of 7and 30-day average streamflows and reservoir water levels. Results for 12 stream locations and 5 reservoirs in the Upper Scioto River Basin are presented primarily as a series of plots. Although it is beyond the scope of this study to address results in detail for each model-output location, selected results are discussed to illustrate potential uses and interpretations of the graph products provided in this report. In addition, general trends and patterns in streamflow and water-level characteristics are identified where possible. 2 Hydrologic Effects of Potential Changes in Climate, Water Use, and Land Cover in the Upper Scioto River Basin, Ohio

The combined effects of climate and land cover changes influence hydrologic responses of a basin in an offsetting or synergistic manner depending on the nature and severity of the changes. As such, estimating the impacts of these environmental changes on hydrologic responses is crucial for planning water resources management. However, such a comprehensive study is missing in most basins of Ethiopia, particularly in the Dhidhessa River basin (DRB). The aim of this study is, therefore, to quantify the combined and separate impacts of land cover and climate changes on multiple hydrologic variables for the DRB. The Calibrated Soil and Water Analysis Tool (SWAT) model and statistical techniques were integrated for this study. Quantifying the separate and combined effects of land cover and climate changes on multiple hydrologic responses at a local scale, and determining the relative contribution of the changes are the strength of this study. The result indicated better performance of the SWAT model in simulating water balance components for the DRB. Significant changes in hydrologic responses were observed in response to the land cover changes, and the increasing trends of temperature and rainfall observed during the last 30 years in DRB. The result showed increasing actual evapotranspiration (AET), streamflow, and surface runoff while decreasing groundwater recharge. Surface runoff was more affected by land cover change than by climate change, whereas streamflow and AET were more affected by climate change than land cover change during the last 30 years in the basin. The combined effects of land cover and climate changes played an offsetting effect on groundwater recharge and AET. Overall, the simulated hydrologic responses will have negative effects on water resource availability and agricultural production in the basin and the surroundings. Therefore, implementing integrated watershed management strategies, such as soil and water conservation and afforestation, could minimize the negative impact.

Accuracy assessment has become increasingly recognized as an integral component in thematic classification of remotely sensed imagery, for which descriptors such as percentage of correctly classified pixels (PCC) and Kappa coefficients of agreement have been devised for statistical inference about significance of classification accuracy. However, such spatially averaged measures about accuracy neither offer hints about spatial variation in misclassification, nor are they useful for quantifying error margins in land cover derivative products, such as land cover change. Such limitations originate from the deficiency that spatial dependency is not properly accommodated in the conventional methods for classification accuracy assessment and error analysis. Geostatistics provides a good framework for uncertainty characterization in land cover mapping and change detection. This paper seeks to extend and consolidate geostatistical approaches to accuracy assessment and error modeling in land cover and land cover change. Methods for creating spatially explicit maps of misclassification and mis-detection of change will be developed on the basis of classified samples and, possibly, covariates, such as spectrally derived class memberships. It is anticipated that systematic research into uncertainty characterization will contribute to long-term development of large-area land cover and land cover change data, as important components in the comprehensive array of biophysical, environmental, climate, and socio-economic databases.

Anthropogenic activities carried out by communities around forests in production forests, protected forests, and conservation forests have an impact on changes in the land cover of these areas. This impact is difficult to avoid because, on the other hand, production forests and protected forests are in direct contact with the lives of local communities. Changes in land cover have a significant impact on the contribution of Folu Net Sink, which is set by the government at 31.89% in 2030 with its efforts. This research aims to provide an overview of land cover changes that occurred in natural forests of the Eucalyptus urophylla type from 2002 to 2022. The method used in this research is a supervised/guided digital classification technique. Ground checks were also carried out in this research to match the accuracy of the image data with the actual conditions in the field. The research results show that changes in land cover in 2012 and 2017 were very extreme. Forest fires were the cause of changes in land cover during this period. Meanwhile, in 2002, 2007, and 2022, the land cover was still good, in a positive direction. The causes of changes in land cover are encroachment activities, encroachment, illegal logging, firewood theft, rice fields, forest fires, plantations, and farming. Forest preservation provides very high benefits for life on earth. Therefore, it is important to pay attention to the welfare of local communities so that they do not damage the forest, as well as increase the capacity to educate the community regarding zoning or blocks in conservation and protected forests. Apart from that, good forest management is needed to ensure forest sustainability in the future.

Introduction: Landscape changes can be monitored using geotechnologies through land use and land cover management over time, which helps identify and understand transformations in the landscape and supports decision-making processes. This study aims to analyze land use and cover change in the Portal do Sertão Identity Territory, Bahia, and to relate the possible causes that have currently induced such changes. This territory, located in the Caatinga biome, has its economic activities mainly concentrated in the primary and tertiary sectors. Remote Sensing (RS) and Geographic Information Systems (GIS) were employed to monitor changes in land use and cover in this territory from 1985 to 2022, using images from the MapBiomas Collection 8.0. During the study period, there was a reduction in the area used for agriculture and livestock and a significant increase in urbanization, with an urban area growth of more than 380%. Additionally, water bodies also expanded, mainly due to the construction of the Pedra do Cavalo Hydroelectric Plant in 1985, which resulted in a larger flooded area. Forest formations, although fluctuating over the years, were negatively impacted by agricultural expansion and urbanization. Therefore, the use of geotechnologies such as RS and GIS proves to be an effective tool for environmental monitoring, enabling the identification and management of land use changes and contributing to the mitigation of environmental impacts. Objective: The aim of this study is to investigate land use and land cover changes in the Portal do Sertão Identity Territory, in order to identify the possible causes currently driving these transformations. . Theoretical Framework: Remote Sensing (RS) is a science that maps Earth’s surface targets using sensors without direct contact. It is an essential tool for understanding and monitoring land use and land cover changes, providing critical information for decision-making from multiple perspectives. Its integration with Geographic Information Systems (GIS) enhances the spatiotemporal analysis of processes such as environmental and territorial degradation. The concept of "Identity Territory," developed by SEPLAN-BA, considers sociocultural, economic, and geographic factors for territorial organization. Institutionalized by state decrees, it divides Bahia into 27 territories to promote regional public policies. The articulation of RS, GIS, and the Identity Territory framework offers an effective approach to understanding and managing land use changes in the Portal do Sertão. Method: This study analyzed land use and land cover changes in the Portal do Sertão Identity Territory, composed of 27 municipalities in Bahia, aiming to understand the possible driving forces behind these changes. Satellite images from the MapBiomas Brazil Collection 8.0 were used for the years 1985, 1990, 1995, 2000, 2005, 2010, 2015, 2020, and 2022. A GIS environment was used to reclassify the images into four classes based on the MapBiomas classification: Forest Formation, Agriculture, Urban Area, and Water Bodies. The total area per class was quantified for each year, and land use transition maps were generated for spatial analysis. Results and Discussion: The analysis revealed that between 1985 and 2022, the Portal do Sertão Identity Territory experienced significant transformations in land use and cover. There was a notable reduction in agricultural and livestock areas and a sharp increase in urban development, particularly in Feira de Santana and neighboring municipalities, driven by industrialization, public policies, and real estate expansion. Forest cover fluctuated, while water bodies increased following the construction of the Pedra do Cavalo Hydroelectric Plant in 1985. These changes reflect processes of urbanization, rural exodus, and territorial reconfiguration influenced by economic, social, and infrastructural factors. Research Implications: This research provides essential technical and spatial support for territorial planning in the region, assisting local governments and institutions in making more informed decisions based on historical land use patterns. The findings highlight the importance of integrated public policies focused on territorial planning, environmental preservation, and housing, especially in light of rapid population growth. Originality/Value: This study contributes to the literature by analyzing the drivers of land use change using open-access data from MapBiomas. Its significance lies in the integration of Remote Sensing and GIS to investigate land use trends in the Portal do Sertão over the past decades, providing strategic insights to support public policy development and more effective territorial planning.

To demonstrate potential future consequences of land cover and land use changes beyond those for physical climate and the carbon cycle, we present an analysis of large‐scale impacts of land cover and land use changes on atmospheric chemistry using the chemistry‐climate model EMAC (ECHAM5/MESSy Atmospheric Chemistry) constrained with present‐day and 2050 land cover, land use, and anthropogenic emissions scenarios. Future land use and land cover changes are expected to result in an increase in global annual soil NO emissions by ∼1.2 TgN yr−1 (9%), whereas isoprene emissions decrease by ∼50 TgC yr−1 (−12%). The analysis shows increases in simulated boundary layer ozone mixing ratios up to ∼9 ppbv and more than a doubling in hydroxyl radical concentrations over deforested areas in Africa. Small changes in global atmosphere‐biosphere fluxes of NOx and ozone point to compensating effects. Decreases in soil NO emissions in deforested regions are counteracted by a larger canopy release of NOx caused by reduced foliage uptake. Despite this decrease in foliage uptake, the ozone deposition flux does not decrease since surface layer mixing ratios increase because of a reduced oxidation of isoprene by ozone. Our study indicates that the simulated impact of land cover and land use changes on atmospheric chemistry depends on a consistent representation of emissions, deposition, and canopy interactions and their dependence on meteorological, hydrological, and biological drivers to account for these compensating effects. It results in negligible changes in the atmospheric oxidizing capacity and, consequently, in the lifetime of methane. Conversely, we expect a pronounced increase in oxidizing capacity as a consequence of anthropogenic emission increases.

This study analyses and interprets the effects of historical and contemporary land use and cover changes (LULC) on soil erosion in the Serra de Mértola region, Portugal, by using the 58 years of measurements in 8 × 22 m erosion plots at the Vale Formoso Erosion Centre and employing methodologies including field observations, aerial image analysis and Landsat NDVI trend assessment. Land cover and management changes, influenced by agricultural policies since the early 20th century, notably during the wheat campaigns of the fascist regime, have exacerbated soil erosion, with the highest rates observed in vertical fallow (964 g m−2 yr−1), wheat (90 g m−2 yr−1) and horizontal fallow (66 g m−2 yr−1). These practices continue to be somewhat relevant today, as cereal production is still being subsidized. However, Quercus, Pines—introduced since agrarian reforms and Portugal's entry into the common agricultural policy (CAP)—and spontaneous vegetation from CAP's set‐aside policies and recent land abandonment trends show lower erosion rates, underlining vegetation's role in erosion protection. Using NDVI trend analysis, we distinguish between natural fluctuations and land cover changes impacts. Understanding these changes and how they relate to slope and valley floor dynamics, such as incision, aggradation or stabilization, is crucial for recognizing human influences on the earth's surface. Our research highlights sustainable land management's role in reducing soil erosion in desertification‐prone areas.

The relationship of land tenure, land use and land cover changes in Lake Victoria basin

Depok City is an area that is experiencing changes in land cover due to very rapid regional development Apart from that, changes in land cover are also caused by population growth which continues to increase. This puts pressure on changes in land cover and its implications for land cover. Changes in land cover from vegetated land to built-up land will cause environmental problems, namely changes in land surface temperature. This research aims to identify land cover conditions based on the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI), identify changes in land surface temperature, and analyze the effect of land cover changes based on NDVI on land surface temperature in Depok City in 2012-2022. This research uses spatial analysis to determine land cover changes based on the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) in Depok City 2012-2022. Satellite image data is interpreted to produce NDVI maps for 2 different years at a scale of 1:50,000. With changes in vegetated land cover, it causes changes in land surface temperature. To find out how big the relationship between these two things is, correlation analysis was carried out using linear regression analysis methods and spatial analysis methods. The results of this research are very significant changes in LST area from 2012 to 2022 with temperatures of <35°C in the Sawangan, Bojongsari, Tapos, Pancoran Mas and Limo sub-districts. Meanwhile, at a temperature of >40°C, very significant changes occur in the areas of Cimanggis, Cinere, Beji, Tapos and Sukmajaya sub-districts. The correlation between LST and NDVI in 2012 and 2022 has a strong negative correlation, which shows that the greater the NDVI value, the LST value tends to decrease.

Land cover changes have been mapped for decades to investigate urban expansion patterns. Under the UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), several indices are employed to interpret urban growth trends quantitatively and comprehensively. However, landowners and the interested public usually have limited insights into these types of information as access to data and software is limited. Static maps and the inability to access special file formats increase the difficulty of viewing and investigating the data. This contribution presents a dedicated, interactive, web-based analysis tool for integrating land cover and land use maps as well as urban expansion indices. The tool’s concept, development and functionality are presented, and its general design is reviewed based on an actual implementation case. The setup allows integrating land use and land cover (LULC) change data alongside SDG indicators. The tool’s design aims to enhance user accessibility to information on urban expansion indices and LULC. We demonstrate that such a tool can be used to help disseminate results and to improve communication with the public in the context of other use cases.

Land use and land cover (LULC) changes have been one of the most important and persistent factors recently causing changes in the Earth’s land. The present study aimed to detect land use and land cover (LULC) changes in Baluchistan, in Southwestern Asia, which is shared by the three countries of Iran, Pakistan, and Afghanistan, using satellite remote-sensing products. To this end, the global land cover classification provided for a period of 13 years from 2001 to 2013 by the MODIS Land Cover Type product (MCD12Q1) was used. The changes and dynamics of different land cover classes were investigated using net change analysis and cross-tabulating matrix analysis methods. The net change analysis showed that the most area of Baluchistan is covered by the barren or sparsely vegetated land cover (about 82%) and the shrubland (about 16%) classes. The dynamics analysis of different land cover classes also indicated that there were almost mutually inverse relationships between the different land cover classes in Baluchistan. Such mutual relationships were most common between the following pair classes: shrublands—bare and non-vegetated lands; grasslands—bare and non-vegetated land classes; croplands—bare and non-vegetated lands classes; and shrublands—grasslands. The most unstable land cover classes in this territory were forests, Savannas, and grassland classes. Also, the analysis of land cover changes in the period 2001–2013 provided no clear and accurate evidence of desertification and land degradation at this spatial scale in Baluchistan.

Statistical approach to the analysis of the relationship between the frequency of flood events and land cover (LC) changes in small catchments of Slovakia is presented in this paper. The data for identification of LC changes were taken from the 1990 and 2006 CORINE LC (CLC) data layers. They were derived by computer-aided visual interpretation of satellite images under the CLC Projects. The data about frequency of flood events in small catchments are from the period 1996–2006. Two hypotheses were formulated: (1) the greater the area of LC changes, the more frequent flood events; (2) in catchments where LC changes accelerating formation of direct runoff (e.g. urbanization, deforestation, farming) dominates, flood events are more frequent than in catchments where the prevailing LC changes (e.g. afforestation) reduce formation of direct runoff. Validity of hypotheses was tested in the framework of flood potential of catchments by two-factor ANOVA method. The obtained results indicate that (1) flood event frequency increases with the increasing total area of LC changes in a catchment. This tendency clearly manifests itself in catchments with very high flood potential. It is somewhat less distinct in catchments with moderate and high flood potentials. (2) There were no differences in flood event frequency between the group of catchments, where LC changes accelerating the formation of the direct runoff prevailed and the group of catchments where LC changes decelerating the formation of direct runoff were dominated.