Vicarious trauma in disaster situations: Social workers’ experiences with Cyclone Idai in Zimbabwe

Disturbed sleep is a hallmark feature of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). However, few studies have examined sleep objectively in individuals with PTSD compared to trauma-exposed controls. This study used wrist actigraphy to measure and compare sleep patterns in trauma-exposed Australian Vietnam veterans (VV) with and without PTSD. Trauma-exposed Australian VV with and without PTSD were recruited from the PTSD Initiative. VV wore wrist accelerometers over 14 days and completed daily sleep diaries. Sleep parameters were compared between groups including sleep latency (SL), time in bed (TIB), total sleep time (TST), wake after sleep onset (WASO), and movement index (MI). Night-to-night and overall within-individual variability were assessed by root mean squared successive differences and comparison of individual standard deviations. Correlations between sleep diary (self-reported) and wrist actigraphy (objective) variables were also assessed. A total of 40 male VV (20 with PTSD) participated in the study. We found no difference in sleep patterns determined by wrist actigraphy between groups with the exception of reduced SL in VV with PTSD (3.9 ± 0.9 versus 4.9 ± 1.4 minutes, P < .05). Overall within-individual variability was significantly greater in VV with PTSD for TIB, TST, WASO, and MI. Self-reported and objective TST and WASO were more strongly correlated in VV without PTSD than those with PTSD. Although there were no significant differences in sleep parameters, VV with PTSD had increased within-individual overall sleep variability and reduced correlation between self-reported and objective sleep parameters compared to trauma-exposed controls. Further evaluation of extended sleep patterns by actigraphy in VV with PTSD is warranted.

The current study examined posttraumatic stress (PTS), resilience, and posttraumatic growth (PTG) among social workers (SWs) in Israel exposed to trauma both directly and indirectly through their work. Two groups of SWs were examined: SWs with high exposure to rocket attacks (n = 50) and SWs with low exposure to rocket attacks (n = 52). Measures included objective, subjective, and professional exposure; PTS; vicarious traumatization (VT); resilience; and PTG. Differences between the two groups were found regarding objective, subjective, and professional exposure, as well as PTS, VT, and PTG. No differences were found regarding resilience. PTS and PTG were positively associated. An interaction between group and resilience in predicting PTS and PTG was found. In the highly exposed group, resilience was negatively associated with PTS and positively with PTG, whereas for the low-exposed group resilience was not associated with PTS and was negatively associated with PTG. The discussion focuses on the need to understand the role of resilience and PTG in the psychological reaction of SWs to direct as well as indirect trauma; it also weighs the possibility that PTG serves as a salutogenic variable under high-trauma exposure but as an illusionary means of self-enhancement under low-level exposure.

The practice of social work places social workers at risk for occupational stress injuries (OSIs) such as 1) post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), 2) secondary traumatic stress (STS), also known as vicarious trauma (VT) or compassion fatigue (CF), and 3) burnout (Bride, 2007; Shackelford, 2012). Therefore, schools of social work need to prepare students for these potentialities and teach them ways to mitigate risk. This study explores whether and how thoroughly schools of social work across Canada are including the topic of OSIs within their Bachelor of Social Work (BSW) curricula. A content analysis was conducted of course descriptions, from each of the 42 BSW programs across Canada, using online university calendars and program websites. Each course description was reviewed for explicit reference to OSIs, (e.g., use of the words PTSD, STS, VT, CF and burnout) and also for implicit mention to the psychological impacts of practicing social work on the social workers themselves. Only three BSW programs offered a course with explicit reference to OSIs, an additional 11 offered courses with implicit reference. Of the 1,494 course descriptions included in the sample, only four explicitly referenced OSIs and 23 made implicit mention to topics that could arguably align with the etiology of OSIs and prevention and mitigation strategies. These topics included worker stress, personal and professional sustainability, professional resiliency, and self-care. These findings raise concern as to how well social work students are being prepared for the realities of practice. Implications of the findings for social work education and preparation for the field are discussed.

The authors report on 404 Southeast Asian refugees seen at a community clinic. Approximately three-quarters of these patients met DSM-III criteria for major depressive episode, and 14% had posttraumatic stress disorder. Complaints of pain and sleep disturbances were the predominant presenting symptoms. Most of the men were married, but more than 40% of the women were widowed. Between 15% and 30% of the patients reported specific traumatic experiences either in their homeland or during their escape. Widowhood and such traumatic experiences were positively correlated with more symptoms of depression and anxiety.

Critical care nurses (CCNs) are in the frontline of providing quality care to critically ill patients. Consequently, they are constantly exposed to stress, trauma and compassion fatigue. However, nursing literature is scarce in reporting the connections between vicarious trauma (VT), secondary traumatic stress (STS), post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), compassion fatigue (CF), professional self-efficacy (PSE) and post-traumatic growth (PTG) among CCNs. To examine the interrelationships of VT, STS, PTSD, CF, PSE and PTG among CCNs. A cross-sectional and correlational design. CCNs (n = 264) in Saudi Arabia were recruited via consecutive sampling from October to December 2024 and completed a questionnaire with six validated self-report scales. Covariance-based structural equation modelling was used to analyse the interrelationships of study variables. STS had significant, direct positive effects on PSE (β = 0.20, p = 0.003), PTSD (β = 0.24, p = 0.002), and PTG (β = 0.39, p = 0.002). PSE had a significant, indirect effect on PTSD (β = -0.43, p = 0.003). VT had significant, direct positive effects on PTG (β = 0.30, p = 0.019) and CF (β = 0.10, p = 0.019). PTSD had significant, direct positive effects on PTG (β = 0.21, p = 0.002) and CF (β = 0.68, p = 0.003). PTG had significant, direct negative effects on CF (β = -0.68, p = 0.003). PSE mediated the impact of STS on PTSD (β = 0.24, p = 0.002). Finally, PTG mediated between VT and CF (β = 0.15, p = 0.001). Our findings demonstrated the mediating roles of PSE and PTG between the associations of STS, PTSD, VT and CF, thus reducing the impacts of STS and VT on PTSD and CF. Healthcare institutions and nurse managers may leverage on the protective effects of PSE and PTG. They may devise and implement programs that strengthen PSE and PTG because they prevent or minimise CCNs' traumatic experiences.

This article integrates the guidelines of American Red Cross and the Psychological First Aid: Field Operations Guide (Brymer et al., 2006) with adult development theories to demonstrate the promotion of adaptive functioning in adults after a disaster. Case examples and recommendations for counselors working in disaster situations are included. ********** Disasters, natural and human-made, strike with and without warning. Lifetime prevalence for a significant traumatic life event involving posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is estimated at 60.7% for men and 51.2% for women (Kessler, Sonnega, Bromet, Hughes, & Nelson, 1995). Lifetime prevalence for exposure to a natural disaster is approximately 20% (Briere & Elliott, 2000; Kessler et al., 1995). Norris, Friedman, Watson, Byrne, et al. (2002) in a study of 60,000 disaster survivors found that between 18% and 21% of the participants indicated severe to very severe impairment. Survivors' rates of PTSD in technological and human-made disasters range from 29% to 54% (McMillen, North, & Smith, 2000), whereas survivors' rates of PTSD in natural disasters are lower, between 4% and 8% (Norris, Friedman, Watson, Byrne, et al., 2002). Study results also indicate that impairment from experiencing a disaster can endure for years (Briere & Elliott, 2000; Grace, Green, Lindy, & Leonard, 1993). Some researchers have called into question the low rates of PTSD because of the stringent criteria for PTSD and given the higher rates of other psychiatric disorders among those with PTSD (Yehuda & McFarlane, 1995). McMillen et al. (2000) proposed that the low rates of PTSD may reflect the stringency of PTSD symptom Criterion C, avoidance and numbing. In a study of Hurricane Hugo survivors 1 to 2 months postdisaster (Norris, Friedman, Watson, Byrne, et al., 2002), 83% met Criterion B (reexperiencing) and 42% met Criterion D (arousal), but only 6% met Criterion C. This criterion is more difficult to meet given that one must exhibit three symptoms in this category; however, the outpouring of community support that often occurs after a disaster may minimize social withdrawal and numbing symptoms (McMillen et al., 2000). McMillen et al. (2000) tested this hypothesis with 130 Northridge, California, earthquake survivors. Of the primarily female sample, 13% met the full criteria for PTSD, whereas 48% met both the reexperiencing and the arousal symptoms Criteria B and D, respectively. As noted earlier, much attention has focused on the psychological effects experienced by survivors in the aftermath of a disaster. Psychologists, licensed professional counselors, social workers, and marriage and family counselors assist survivors of disasters by serving on state and local disaster teams associated with the Disaster Response Network of the American Psychological Association (APA) or by volunteering with the American Counseling Association or the American Red Cross as a disaster mental health volunteer (DMHV). In this article, we integrate adult development theories, the guidelines of the American Red Cross (2005) disaster mental health training workbook, and the principles in the Psychological First Aid: Field Operations Guide (PFA; Brymer et al., 2006) developed by the National Child Traumatic Stress Network in the presentation of case examples of adult disaster survivors who received services from American Red Cross DMHVs. PROBLEMATIC RESPONSES Research on the mental health and psychosocial supports that are most effective during and immediately following a disaster is scarce (Inter-Agency Standing Committee [IASC], 2007). Most empirical studies are conducted in the months and years after a disaster. It is well known that specific subgroups of the population are considered to be at increased risk during a natural disaster. Women, children, older adults, individuals who are poor, and young men who become targets of violence are among the most vulnerable (Cronkite & Moos, 1984; Kessler et al. …

Background and Aim: As a global threat, the COVID-19 pandemic is a challenge to psychological resilience Systematic studies by examining and combining all related documents can provide a more complete description of the dimensions of the problem in society The aim of this study was to determine the prevalence of various psychological disorders during the COVID-19 pandemic Methods: This is a systematic review Studies using different combinations of keywords COVID-19, SARSCoV-2, pandemic, psychological disorders, mental health, psychological consequences were retrieved from different scientific databases Magiran, SID, Iranmedex, Elsevier, Pubmed, Science Direct, Scopus, Web of Science These studies were published from December 1, 2019, to May 30, 2020 Twenty-eight studies out of 410 retrieved articles were evaluated and analyzed for data extraction Results: The analysis of studies revealed that the different types of psychological disorders like stress, anxiety, depression, post-traumatic stress disorder, mental distress, schizophrenia, sleep disorders and sleep disturbances, vicarious traumatization, internet addiction on moderate to severe in public and medical personnel were recorded during COVID-19 crisis The frontline health care workers such as nurses were more depressed, anxious, insomniac, and mentally disturbed Women were more vulnerable to psychological disorders and sleep problems Young people in the age group between 18 and 30 years old were more likely to experience generalized anxiety disorder and mental distress Conclusion: COVID-19 has led to high prevalence and a wide range of psychological disorders among individuals and various groups in society, especially in medical personnel It is essential to provide psychological assistance and training strategies to deal with a variety of these psychological disorders © 2020 Baqiyatallah University of Medical Sciences All rights reserved

COVID-19 has had a profound effect on frontline social workers as well as their clients, and mitigating the risk of recurrence warrants an investigation of the individual and contextual factors associated with social workers’ experience of helper-related trauma. In this study authors explore the effects of government support and professional support on social workers’ vicarious trauma and the mediating roles of compassion fatigue and professional identity during the COVID-19 pandemic. Surveying 388 social workers from Wuhan, Hubei Province, China, during the pandemic, indicated that professional support was indirectly related to vicarious trauma while compassion fatigue played a fully mediating role. Government support had a negative direct effect on vicarious trauma, and professional identity played a partially mediating role. However, contrary to authors’ expectations, professional identity was positively rather than negatively related to vicarious trauma. These findings suggest, first, that coping strategies for compassion fatigue should be included in professional supervision and, second, that government should provide more substantive support to effectively reduce vicarious trauma among social workers during the pandemic.

Family violence is one of the most pressing social issues in South Africa. Its contributing factors are complex, and in fighting against it, social workers are using different strategies to mobilise communities to work together in fighting this vicious cycle of violence. Therefore, this study aims to provide insight into the role of social workers in mobilising community involvement as a strategy for preventing family violence. Ecological and systems theories were used to show how different systems contribute to the social and psychological aspects of families’ wellness and the community at large. This qualitative study used a sample of 20 participants comprised of 10 social workers, who were individually interviewed, and 10 community members, who were part of the two focus group discussions. An exploratory design was used in this study. Purposive and snowball sampling were used to select the participants. Data were analysed using reflexive thematic analysis. Findings showed different factors contribute to family violence. This article concludes that social workers play a crucial role in preventing family violence. However, the study recommends that social workers should establish violence-prevention programmes by working with men and boys to address gender inequality and prevent men’s perpetration of violence.

Purpose In inpatient addiction rehabilitation, the context factors of parenthood and family have long been neglected, and evidence-based inpatient, standardized programs to strengthen rehabilitants in their role as parents are not routinely implemented in Germany. Social workers are highly involved in the field of addiction and youth welfare support. Therefore, this study aimed to capture their perspectives on how to strengthen parents in the context of an inpatient addiction rehabilitation intervention.Methods Semi-structured expert interviews were conducted with social workers working with parents with substance use disorder (SUD) in ambulatory settings. The interviews were transcribed verbatim and analyzed using Reflexive Thematic Analysis.Results The analysis identified four main themes that are crucial for strengthening rehabilitants in their parental role. Theme one deals with the exploration of different spheres of parenthood as intervention content: the subjective perception as a parent, the parental role as a child carer, and as family manager. Theme two concerns the methods through which (theoretical knowledge transfer, reflexive and practical exercise) and social settings in which (single, one-to-one, and group settings) this intervention content shall be provided. In theme three, the importance of a sensitive and cooperative professional attitude of rehabilitation associated professional health and social care workers – towards rehabilitants and professionals alike – is included. Theme four stresses the need for a family-centered rehabilitation organization by working as a professional interinstitutional network and arranging adequate childcare.Conclusion Results show that social workers see substantial potential in inpatient addiction rehabilitation for strengthening parents with SUD in their parenting role. The multifaceted parental role should be examined in depth during rehabilitation in a trusting atmosphere. After discharge, especially (social pedagogical) follow-up care is considered crucial for perpetuating insights and progressions and sustainably strengthening rehabilitants, thus, the family system as a whole.

Vicarious trauma is referred to as the detrimental change in the manner that professionals understand and interpret material, as a result of exposure to second-hand traumatic material (McCann & Pearlman [1990] Journal of Traumatic Stress, 3:131). According to Aparicio etal. (Health & Social Work, 2013, 38:199), vicarious trauma comprises both affective and cognitive components and, while it is distinct from posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), it is associated with similar symptoms, including re-experiencing and avoiding traumatic material and experiencing depressed mood. The purpose of this study was to analyse the psychometric properties of the Victim Trauma Scale (VTS) and provide additional support, supplementing the findings of Aparicio etal. (2013), but instead using victim advocates as participants (n=142). The survey was open between February 2016 and February 2017. More than 96% of participants were in paid employment positions, as more than 80% reporting working 40 or more hours a week. Aparicio etal. (2013) found that the VTS was two-dimensional (affective and cognitive); however, after examining the goodness of fit of the two-factor model using a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) approach, this study concluded that the two-dimensional model was not a good fit. Due to the poor goodness of fit of the two-factor model and the post hoc EFA resulting in a one-factor model, our data do not support the findings of Aparicio etal. (2013). Further, the findings suggest the VTS is an acceptable measure of vicarious trauma, as demonstrated by the high internal consistency and the single-factor loading.

The current study investigated posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and vicarious trauma (VT) symptoms among mental health professionals (MHPs) working in communities exposed to high levels of trauma related to rocket attacks from the Gaza Strip. The study assessed direct and vicarious traumatic exposure. The study also explored the relationship between professional supports (for example, training, supervision) and sense of professional self-efficacy with MHPs’ PTSD and VT symptoms. Results indicate that MHPs working in the more severely affected community of Sderot reported higher objective, subjective, and professional exposure as well as higher levels of PTSD and VT symptoms compared with MHPs working in some of the other Gaza-bordering communities. Although PTSD and VT were found to be highly correlated, there were some distinct predictors. PTSD was predicted by professional experience, subjective exposure, and professional self-efficacy. VT was further predicted by years of education and professional support. The findings indicate that MHPs exposed to concurrent primary trauma and VT are at increased risk for psychological distress and may require targeted interventions to boost their resilience. Opportunities for respite, interventions to increase professional self-efficacy, and appropriate professional supports may buffer the effects of concurrent primary trauma and VT exposure.

Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder: Basic Science and Clinical Practice

How a systematic review of the experiences of emergency first responder family members living with post-traumatic stress disorder can inform new models of care.

As a consequence of their professional activity, rescue workers are exposed to potentially traumatic events (PTEs). Therefore, they can develop negative effects both on a personal and on an organizational level. In particular, rescuers can be considered at high risk for post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). In general, the prevalence of PTSD is affected by the nature, the severity, and the repetition of the exposure to traumatic events. In particular, the higher rate of post-traumatic symptoms has been observed among ambulance operators because they are exposed to greater pressure and occupational stressors, if compared to other rescuers. As indirect witnesses of critical events, rescuers are also exposed to the “stress resulting from helping or wanting to help a traumatized or suffering person” that is vicarious traumatization (VT). VTsymptoms are very similar to those observed in PTSD victims, but the mental condition associated with a trauma is transmitted by the victim to the rescuer. Despite the frequent exposure to PTEs, the majority of rescuers do not develop negative effects because they can rely on several individual and organizational protective factors, post-traumatic growth, and adaptive flexibility. List of Abbreviations CISD Critical Incident Stress Debriefing CISM Critical Incident Stress Management PTE Potentially Traumatic Event PTG Post-Traumatic Growth VT Vicarious Traumatization Introduction: Who are Rescue Workers? Rescue workers are professionally or voluntarily engaged in activities targeted at providing aid to others in emergency circumstances: they are, for example, firefighters, social workers, police force, physicians and nurses, and those who search for survivors (see Table 1). As a consequence of their professional duties, all of them are almost daily exposed to traumatic events (Marmar et al. 1996; Norris et al. 2002). Rescue workers are exposed to physical risks in response to hard work in nonphysiological and unnatural environmental conditions (McLellan and Selkirk 2006): for example, the occupational fatality *Email: ilaria.setti@unipv.it Comprehensive Guide to Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-08613-2_78-1 # Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2015