Vernacular architecture of Turkish eastern Black Sea region: a case study in Senoz (Büyükdere) Valley

The contributions of sustainability to architectural designs are steadily increasing in parallel with developments in technology. Although sustainability seems to be a new concept in today’s architecture, in reality, it is not. This is because, much of sustainable architectural design principles depend on references to vernacular architecture, and there are many examples found in different parts of the world to which architects can refer. When the world seeks for more sustainable buildings, it is acceptable to revisit the past in order to understand sustainable features of vernacular architecture. It is clear that vernacular architecture has a knowledge that matters to be studied and classified from a sustainability point of view. This work aims to demonstrate that vernacular architecture can contribute to improving sustainability in construction. In this sense, the paper evaluates specific vernacular housing in Eastern Black Sea Region in Turkey and their response to nature and ecology. In order to explain this response, field work was carried out and the vernacular architectural accumulation of the region was examined on site. The features of the examples have been identified and debated in today’s sustainable architectural concept. This work holistically evaluates this architectural manifestation, in the light of current knowledge, in order to find scientific justification for its knowledge to verify and promote its application in the future.

This study explores the typological diversity of timber-framed wall construction in the vernacular architecture of Sürmene, a district located in the Eastern Black Sea region of Turkey. The region features a complex settlement structure composed of coastal towns, rural villages, hamlets, and highland pastures – each shaped by distinct topographic conditions and seasonal use patterns. Within these local zones, five timber-framed wall systems – Taraba, Bağdadi, Çatkı (Stone), Çatkı (Brick), Gözdolma, and Muskalıdolma – were identified, each associated with a specific altitudinal level. The research aims to establish a correlation between settlement altitudes and timber wall typologies, identifying how environmental and socio-cultural factors influence construction techniques. Field data were obtained through on-site documentation in eight villages and analysed using a Geographic Information System (GIS). A CRITIC-based multi-criteria investigation approach was employed to assess wall systems across five criteria: material availability, climatic adaptation, ease of construction, dismantlability, and structural integrity. The findings show that each wall type corresponds to distinct altitudinal patterns, shaped by topographic context, environmental pressures, and cultural preferences. The results highlight the adaptive capacity of timber construction in response to environmental gradients, illustrating how vernacular knowledge integrates resilience, material logic, and sustainable spatial organisation in the Eastern Black Sea region.

There is a wide consensus among hydrologists that discharge during the flow recession consists mainly of baseflow, i.e., delayed runoff exfiltrating from the shallow groundwater reservoir and of interflow. It is scarcely noticed, however, that also during floods a considerable portion of discharge is baseflow. Therefore, recession and baseflow analyses do not only concern low flow and groundwater recharge questions but also floods. In this study, the nonlinear reservoir theory is used, assuming nonlinear relation between groundwater storage and baseflow discharge in the river and it is applied for baseflow separation and analysis. Case studies are performed for a time series of daily flows from Melen and Solakli watersheds in the flood‐prone Western and Eastern Black Sea regions in Turkey. The case studies revealed the evident seasonal behavior of baseflow. The water balances showed that the groundwater recharge is higher than the baseflow discharge during the wet season when flows in the streams increase. The baseflow discharge became greater than the groundwater recharge during the months with decreasing flow towards the summer season. It can be concluded that groundwater recharge, outflow and evaporation losses depend highly on seasonality and flow magnitude in the Black Sea region in Turkey.

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to emphasize passive energy refurbishment of vernacular building heritages and propose new application principles of sustainability from these vernacular heritages into contemporary architecture.Design/methodology/approachThis paper is based on a research project (The Creation of a Prototype Project within the Application of Traditional Methods in Kastamonu, Küre Rural Settlements, 2017), through which vernacular architecture examples were analyzed, projecting for future interpretations for rural environments. Defining vernacular rural design principles is centrally important for the purposes of this project. As a case study from the Black Sea Region in Turkey, this example is investigated, and the outcomes of the analysis are used to reproduce in contemporary architectural terms the energy efficiency and rural patterns of the flexible rural house experience.FindingsThe research provides design principles for developing a new living experience in rural environments. The overall planning and architectural analysis are made in five neighborhoods in Küre, and three of unique vernacular architecture examples are chosen according to several criteria defined in “Kastamonu-Küre Ersizlerdere Village Design Guideline Project, 2014” to get the optimum data. Materials, orientation, form, spatial organization and building's indoor-outdoor relationship were analyzed by Autodesk's “Ecotect Analysis” simulation program.Practical implicationsResults of the proposed design principles of rural housing will be useful for new housing interpretations related to better rural development.Originality/valueWhile defining energy efficiency criteria of vernacular itself, the results of this paper suggest new local solutions to ecological building design and engage with critical regionalism principles referring to the potentials of what traditional dwellings can teach contemporary design.

Vernacular architecture and its responses to natural factors through architectural patterns are recognized as expressions of bioclimatic principles and national architectural responses to location. The vernacular architectural heritage of architecture is one of the most important factors in preserving and developing the cultural identity of a nation. Through research on the vernacular architecture of the coastal area of Skadar Lake, our goal is to recognize and potentially valorize the local traditional characteristics of authentic houses as ecological building patterns, which also express the fundamentals of sustainability principles. Although examples of vernacular architecture are disappearing due to contemporary globalization, and a mere imitation of motifs from past periods occurs, the historical specifics of architectural expression remain the inspiration and catalyst for future achievements based on the idea of preserving the local and regional recognizability of architecture. This research resulted in a redefinition of vernacular, bioclimatic concepts in a way that preserves construction techniques, which basically have an ecological approach, and, at the same time, provides modern solutions with bioclimatic concepts. The case study conducted on the village of Karuč in the area of Skadar Lake presented in the paper contributes to revealing the potential of bioclimatic principles and the energy rehabilitation of vernacular architecture in order to revitalize it through a new contemporary architectural expression. This study’s contents propose revitalization solutions at two levels of the following: settlement and typical houses. The study also aims to create a model, that is, a modern expression of a characteristic Karuč house, with improved functionality and energy characteristics for national architecture. Identifying all the basic building patterns, including the positioning of buildings, construction, the application of available materials, and the design of buildings, this paper presents conditions for the adequate valorization and preservation of authentic vernacular architecture and creates guidelines for further upgrades and the bioclimatic revitalization of vernacular architecture in a certain location.

In recent years, a large number of quarry blasts have been detonated in the eastern Black Sea region. When these blasts are recorded by seismic stations, they contaminate the regional earthquake catalog. It is necessary to discriminate quarry blast records from the earthquake catalogs in order to determine the real seismicity of the region. Earthquakes and quarry blasts can be separated through different methods. These methods should be applied concurrently in order to safely distinguish these events. In this study, we discriminated quarry blasts from earthquakes in the eastern Black Sea region of Turkey. We used 186 seismic events recorded by the Karadeniz Technical University and Bogazici University Kandilli Observatory Earthquake Research Institute stations which are Trabzon, Espiye, Pazar, Borcka, Aydintepe, and Gumushane between years of 2002 and 2010. For the discrimination of quarry blasts from earthquakes, we used both, statistical methods (calculation of the maximum ratio of S to P waves (S/P), complexity (C)) and spectral methods (spectrogram calculation). These methods included measuring the maximum amplitude S/P, C, spectral ratio, and time-frequency analysis. We especially relied on two-dimensional time-frequency analysis methods to discriminate quarry blasts from earthquakes in Turkey. As a result of this study, 68 % of the examined seismic events were determined to be quarry blasts and 32 % to be earthquakes. The earthquakes occurring on land are related to small faults and the blasts are concentrated in large quarries. Nearly 40 % of the earthquakes occurred in the Black Sea, most of them are related to the Black Sea thrust belt, where the largest earthquake was observed in the time period studied. The areas with the largest earthquake potential in the eastern Black Sea region are in the sea.

Climatic effect in the formation of vernacular houses in the Eastern Black Sea region

Following the global pandemic crisis it is critical for our cities to implement new design solutions that will allow our cities to implement innovative design solutions, to our cities to adapt particularly during the terrible times we have been forced to face. It has been discovered that the design method that our ancestors followed in Vernacular architecture was prepared to resist all difficult circumstances by studying design methods in our vernacular architecture that have always gone through difficult times. According to the literature review, it has been brought to light that the vernacular architecture of the country's population is an indigenous regenerative architecture. This paper aims to explore the regenerative design method in Kurdish vernacular architecture creating a Theoretical framework as an attempt to organize and work with this design method. The paper concluded that Kurdish vernacular architecture uses the method of regenerative design because it is based on the principles of reuse, re-storage and revitalization as well as using all the context resources to live with the environment without wasting resources.

In the present study we evaluated the effects of iodine intake on the prevalence of thyroid dysfunction, autoimmunity, and goiter in two regions with different iodine status after two years of iodization in Turkey. In total 1733 adolescent subjects were enrolled into the study (993 from an iodine-sufficient area--the Eastern Black Sea Region (group 1) and 740 from an iodine-deficient area--Middle Anatolia (group 2)). We measured free thyroxine (FT(4)), thyrotropin (TSH), antithyroid peroxidase antibodies (Anti-TPO), antithyroglobulin antibodies (Anti-Tg), and urinary iodine (UI), and examined the thyroid gland by ultrasound. Median urinary iodine excretion was found to be significantly different in group 1 and group 2 (139 micro/l vs 61micro/l, p < 0.001). Hyperthyroidism was more frequent in group 1 (3.6% vs 0.7%; p < 0.001), but the hypothyroidism rate was similar between groups (1.8% vs 1.4 %; p>0.05). The percentage of anti-Tg positive subjects was found to be 17.6% in group 1 and 6.4% in group 2; that of anti-TPO positive subjects was 4.3% in group 1 and 1.5% in group 2. The prevalence of antithyroid antibody (anti-Tg and/or anti-TPO) positivity was significantly higher in group 1 than in group 2 (18.52% vs 6.62%; p < 0.001). Thyroid volumes of the hyperthyroid subjects in both groups were significantly higher than hypo- and euthyroid subjects. In conclusion, iodine supplementation in Turkey has resulted in the elimination of iodine deficiency in the Eastern Black Sea Region, and this has been accompanied by an increase in the prevalence of autoimmune thyroiditis and thyroid dysfunction.

In Turkey, especially in the Eastern Black Sea region, many roofs collapse or damage due to heavy snowfalls exceeding the maximum loads for design have been experienced. Roof snow loads specified for structural design in modern standards are calculated as the product of a design ground snow load and the conversion factors that depend on the roof properties. The aim of this study is to create a map to give precisely the variation of the ground snow loads in the Eastern Black Sea region so that design of roof snow loads in the region can be estimated accurately. To accomplish this purpose, the probability plot correlation coefficient test was examined with three different cumulative distribution functions (Gumbel, Lognormal, and Weibull) to determine the best fit of the theoretical probability distribution with the snow data of 32 Turkish State Meteorological Service weather stations located in the Eastern Black Sea region and adjacent cities. After the 50-year ground snow loads were determined using the data collected from each station, the ground snow load map of the region was produced using a geographic information system. The approaches in Turkish codes of TS 498 and TS 7046 were also discussed along with the results obtained in the study.

The eastern Black Sea Region, in Turkey, has a significantly authentic characteristic as regards to its rural architecture. The climate, geography, and local living culture in the region have developed an invaluable rural built environment in terms of cultural heritage. Thus, the architectural heritage of the region shows the perfect balance between the nature and human life, there is a need to understand the value of the vernacular architecture heritage in the region. The architecture is a response to functional requirements as well as environmental factors. Indeed, rural architectural of this region is a reflection of the cultural values of the society, behavioural patterns of the people and environmental factors from the past. In this study, the aim is understand and appreciate this heritage through systematic surveying and documentation in eastern Black Sea Region composed from Trabzon, Rize and Artvin Cities. Further aims are the establishment of an architectural typology based on the plan, facade and site plan, and materials use, with the goal to develop guidelines for new buildings in the region.

Although kiwifruit is known as a common cause of food allergy, population-based studies concerning the prevalence of kiwifruit allergy do not exist. We aimed to determine the prevalence and clinical characteristics of IgE-mediated kiwifruit allergy in 6-18-year-old urban schoolchildren in a region where kiwifruit is widely cultivated. This cross-sectional study recruited 20,800 of the randomly selected 6-18-year-old urban schoolchildren from the Rize city in the eastern Black Sea region of Turkey during 2013. Following a self-administered questionnaire completed by the parents and the child, consenting children were invited for skin prick tests (SPTs) and oral food challenges (OFCs). Children with suspected IgE-mediated kiwifruit were skin prick tested with kiwifruit (commercial allergen and prick-to-prick test with fresh kiwifruit) and a pre-defined panel of allergens (banana, avocado, latex, sesame seed, birch, timothy, hazel, cat, Dermatophagoides pteronyssinus, and Dermatophagoides farinae). All children with a positive SPT to kiwifruit were invited for an open OFC. The prevalence of IgE-mediated kiwifruit allergy was established using open OFCs. The response rate to the questionnaire was 75.9% (15783/20800). The estimated prevalence of parental-perceived IgE-mediated kiwifruit allergy was 0.5% (72/15783) (95% CI, 0.39-0.61%). Of the 72 children, 52 (72.2%) were skin tested, and 17 (32.7%) were found to be positive to kiwifruit with both commercial extract and kiwifruit. The most frequently reported symptoms in kiwifruit SPT-positive children were cutaneous (n = 10, 58.8%) followed by gastrointestinal (n = 6, 35.3%) and bronchial (n = 4, 23.5%). Oral symptoms were reported in six (35.3%) children. All children who were kiwifruit positive by SPT were found positive during the oral challenge. The confirmed prevalence of IgE-mediated kiwifruit allergy by means of open OFC in 6-18-year-old urban schoolchildren living in Rize city was 0.10% (95% CI, 0.06-0.16). Prevalence of parental-perceived and clinically confirmed kiwifruit allergy is not consistent. In contrast to expectations, kiwifruit allergy prevalence was low in a city where it is cultivated and highly consumed.

The Eastern Black Sea Region of Turkey, with a mountainous coastline of 39,203 km² (5.1% of the country) and population of 2.6 million (2009 census) has the highest peaks (above 3,900 m) in the central part of the region. Annual rainfall in the coastal areas ranges from 2,000 to 2,500 mm resulting most dense forests in the region. Natural features in the Eastern Black Sea region make living conditions harsh; In addition, the area is difficult to access due to its distance from developed areas and insufficient infrastructure. The mountain areas in this region suffer lack of adequate basic services such as transportation, communication, education, and healthcare (Somuncu and Inci, 2004). Mountains in the Eastern Black Sea Region are less-developed areas. As a result of the inadequacy of incomes and the limited availability of basic services such as transportation, health services and education, local people have been continuously migrating from mountains since 1950s. Sustainable development is needed to reduce and stop emigrations from the region.

To ensure architecture built on sustainable principles and safeguard cultural heritage exposed to destruction are challenges Bosnia is facing in the modern age. The case study of this research, Bosnian village Idbar, with its important historical, traditional and architectural values, showcases the challenges mentioned above, and examines whether Bosnian vernacular rural architecture follows criteria of sustainability and was built on hypothesis that Bosnian vernacular rural architecture fulfills sustainability principles. It was addressed by analytical historical method with auxiliary method of case study which incorporated recordings of site conditions. Sustainability classification of cluster dwelling units in Idbar was examined in accordance to the conventionally accepted sustainability principles: minimal start up environmental impact, contextualization, adaptability, water usage sustainability, energy efficiency, self-conserving, and biodegradability. The research established set of evaluation principles and criteria concerning sustainability of vernacular architecture that can be universally applicable in Bosnia.

High mountain forests (HMFs) have an important significance in forest ecosystems, but the benefits from such ecosystems have been compromised in recent years. In Turkey, HMFs constitute significant portions of Turkish forests because they cover 4% of Turkey; 15% of all Turkish forest areas are HMFs. The Eastern Black Sea region has a particular importance for HMFs due to its biological diversity and the rich presence of endemic species. This study analyzes the changes in spatial and temporal patterns of forest cover in HMF from 1973 to 2008 in the town of Maçka, which is located at the center of the Eastern Black Sea region of Turkey. The spatial and temporal change patterns of land use are quantified by interpreting spatial data. Remote sensing (RS), geographical information system (GIS), and a spatial pattern analysis program for categorical maps (FRAGSTATS) have been used for data collection, analysis, and presentation. The results showed that the HMF areas had biphasic growth from 1973 to 2008. Despite a net increase of 200.6 ha in forested areas between 1984 and 2008, there was an overall decrease from 1973 to 2008. The annual percentage of forestation for the forest areas within the study period was 0.04% in Maçka. The amount of aggregated forest area fragments rose from 388 in 1973 to 711 in 2008. The increase in the HMF of Maçka can be explained to some extent by the change in the demographic structure of Maçka and its plateaus, which contributed to changes in the daily life of the population of Maçka and its villages, such as changes in annual incomes, their lifestyles, decrease in transhumance and stockbreeding, decrease in the time of dwelling on the plateaus, and changes in the traditional architectural style.