Vegetable farmers’ adoption of multiple soil fertility management practices in rural China

Sustainability of farmers' soil fertility management practices: A case study in the North China Plain

Drivers of adoption of crop protection and soil fertility management practices among smallholder soybean farmers in Tolon district of Ghana

Understanding the landscape features of agricultural lands and soil management practices is pertinent to verify the potential and limitations of the soil resources; and devise relevant land management strategies. However, information is lacking in Wolaita, Southern Ethiopia. Thus, this study aimed at investigating the physiographic characteristics of agricultural lands, farmers’ soil fertility management practices and their influences on soil fertility and crop productivity was conducted. The survey involved 789 randomly sampled agricultural lands. Soil sample as well as data on slope, topography, land use, crop rotation, fallowing, cropping intensity, crop residue management, fertilizer use and farmers’ estimated crop yield were collected and evaluated. The result indicated that agriculture has been practiced under diverse slope positions (1–58%). This significantly influenced most of soil physico-chemical properties in which an increase in soil bulk density, and decrease in available phosphorous, exchangeable calcium, extractable boron, copper, iron and zinc with an increase in slope positions were recorded. Furthermore, continuous cultivation without any fallow periods and complete crop residue removal (96%) were common practices. Fertilizer use was not sufficient. The average use (kg ha−1) was 30 and 9 for di-ammonium phosphate (DAP) and urea, respectively, and about 89% of study area received manure below 1.5 t ha−1. All these limitations made farmers to experience lower crop yield than the national average estimates. Based on the result, it is possible to conclude that the following soil management interventions such as soil conservation, application of sufficient organic and inorganic fertilizers are recommended to restore the soil fertility and improve crop productivity.

In Africa, cocoa yields are low, partly due to soil fertility constraints and poor management. While peoples’ knowledge, aspirations, and abilities are key factors explaining their behaviour, little is known about the rationales that underpin soil fertility management practices (SFMPs) of cocoa farmers. To address this gap, we conducted an exploratory survey in two contrasting regions in Cameroon where cocoa is an important crop: the humid forest and the forest-savannah transition zone. Some 30% of farmers in the transition zone as opposed to 13% in the humid forest expressed concerns about soil fertility. The most relevant soil fertility indicators for farmers were high cocoa yield, dark soil colour, ease of tillage, and floral composition. To enhance and maintain soil fertility, farmers used residues from weeding (100%), planting of trees (42%), mineral fertilisers (33%), compost (16%), and manure (13%). More farmers in the transition zone than the humid forest implemented SFMPs. Our findings suggest that soil fertility perceptions, access to inputs, local practices, and experience influence farmers’ use of SFMPs. The limited use of mineral fertilisers was explained by poor access whereas the use of organic fertilisers and tree planting were mostly constrained by lack of labour and knowledge. Farmers prioritised practices to increase yield and viewed SFMPs to be the least important management practices, although they believe high cocoa yield is an important indicator of soil fertility. To foster sustainable cocoa intensification, it is necessary to enhance farmers’ knowledge on SFMPs, increase access to inputs, and ensure returns on investment while considering farmers’ priorities and practices.

Even though it is widely recognized that giving farmers more secure land rights may increase agricultural investment, scholars contend that, in the case of China, such a policy might undermine the function of land as a social safety net and, as a consequence, not be sustainable or command broad support. Data from three provinces, one of which had adopted a policy to increase security of tenure in advance of the others, suggest that greater tenure security, especially if combined with transferability of land, had a positive impact on agricultural investment and, within the time frame considered, led neither to an increase in inequality of land distribution nor a reduction in households' ability to cope with exogenous shocks. Household support for more secure property rights is increased by their access to other insurance mechanisms, suggesting some role of land as a safety net. At the same time, past exposure to this type of land right has a much larger impact quantitatively, suggesting that a large part of the resistance to changed property rights arrangements disappears as household familiarity with such rights increases.

There is evidence that the soil health in Taveuni, Fiji is deteriorating over time threatening livelihoods of taro producers. The present study was conducted to understand the soil nutrient management practices followed by taro farmers in Taveuni. The study revealed that the farmers in Taveuni use various organic and chemical fertilizers and various other soil fertility management practices such as mulching, crop rotation with legumes, yagona and agroforestry. The quantity of nitrogen, phosphorous and potash (NPK) applied to taro crop on different types of soils was meager. The study further revealed that there was imbalanced and insufficient use of chemical fertilizers and organic sources of soil nutrients. The main cause of low use of fertilizers was that the farmers in Taveuni do not know the fertility status of their farms as no soil testing was ever done and majority of them are also not fully aware of various low-cost organic methods of maintaining soil fertility of farms.

Declining soil fertility is a major threat to agricultural productivity and livelihoods in sub-Saharan Africa, particularly in Niger, where most farmers have few resources and depend on degraded lands. Large-scale adoption of soil fertility management technologies (SFMT) by small-scale farmers is among the proposed solutions, but this remains low because of various constraints. A better understanding of the socioeconomic factors that influence farming practices is needed to adapt SFMT to farmers' use. A survey using semi-structured interviews with 101 household heads was conducted in 2013 in Karabedji, Niger. The influence of household socio-economic factors on soil fertility management practices (SFMP) was assessed through farmers that were involved in demonstration activities as part of a long-term research project (13 years) on the restoration of soil fertility on farmers’ fields. The results showed that the farmer's household size was between 9 and 14 people and that the majority of farmers did not attain formal education. Fifty percent (50%) of the non-participating farmers and 69% of the participants of the demonstration were affiliated with farmers' organizations. The proportion of demonstration participants and non-participants having an average farm income of less than 300,000 FCFA (about US $ 600) was 70 to 75%. Logistic regression analysis showed a significant positive effect (P <0.05) of affiliation in FBO on chemical fertilizer acquisition and use of other SFMP, while participation to demonstration activities and resource endowment was negatively associated with the purchase of these chemical inputs. Animal drawn cart possession and average farm income had a positive impact on farmers' SFMP. These results call for increased support towards all initiatives aimed at strengthening local farmer organizations and raising farmers’ awareness, in order to improve farmers' access to inputs and use of the SFMT. Further investigations should also be focused on the influence of conditions that can motivate farmers to acquire inputs, such as fertilizer, at the times when they have the means and saving it for future use.

National outputs of cocoa beans in Ghana has seen appreci able increases in the last six years due in part to pragmatic policies including the national control of pests and diseases on all cocoa farms, the increased use of fertilizers on farmers’ farms and increase in the producer price paid to farmers. However, productivity on farmers’ farms remains low at 400 kg/ha against potential yield of over 2.5 tonnes per hectare. The continuous mining of inherent fertility of cocoa soils without replenishment has been identified as major cause of the low productivity of cocoa farms. Using structured survey instruments, this study sought to identify farmer soil fertility management practices that enhances yield and which could be improved by way of research outcomes. A total of 150 farmers from three districts in the Eastern region were randomly selected and interviewed on one-on-one basis between July and October 2008. Farmers’ soil fertility management practices included chemical and organic fertilizer application, control of erosion and mulching. Farmers who are members of farmers’ associations had better access to fertilizers and also applied the fertilizers correctly and at the right time. The effectiveness of fertilizer application was dependent on effective control of blackpod disease, capsids and judicious pruning and shade management. The findings imply that intensive education of farmers on the need to carry out recommended husbandry practices was critical if soil fertility management strategies are to be translated into improved on-farm productivity.

When China's leaders launched rural reforms in the late 1970s, they acknowledged the nation's need to modify its commitment to egalitarianism.1 Slogans such as Tt is glorious to be rich!' and 'Some areas will lead; others will follow!' signalled this fundamental shift in ideology. Leaders backed up these exhortations with a series of concrete policy actions ? establishing the Special Economic Zones and implementing the East Coast-first policy, introducing financial reforms, and initiating the rural industrialization movement. In China's version of the 'trickle down' theory, certain core areas were to take the lead in the modernization process and provide models for other areas to later emulate. Adopting strategies that had been employed

Potato (Solanum tuberosum [L.]) is one of the food and cash crops in Malawi. Almost all potato farmers in the country are smallholders with low productivity. In order to develop appropriate interventions to improve productivity, it is important to first understand farmers&rsquo; characteristics and prevailing production practices. This study was therefore carried out in October 2010 in Champhira Extension Planning Area (EPA) in Mzimba District, Malawi with main objective of documenting key baseline information characterising smallholder potato growers and their production practices in the area. The survey was conducted in five randomly selected villages in Kazingilila Section in the same EPA whereby a total of 50 households (10 household from each village) were interviewed using a pre-tested questionnaire. The questionnaire was designed to gather information on social and demographic characteristics of households, farm size, knowledge and experience with potato production, soil fertility management practices, perceived market for potatoes and challenges. In addition, interviews with government extension officers residing in the area were carried out as key informants for general information about the status of potato production in the study area. Results indicate that total land holding size is between 0.65 and 1.01 ha and farmers allocate on average 0.08 ha to potato production. Results also show that farmers were growing Rosita as the only recognised and released variety in Malawi. Also, 80% of respondents were recycling their own seed with very limited knowledge of proper seed selection. On soil fertility management practices, 98% of farmers were applying chemical fertilisers mainly as 23:21:0 + 4 S and CAN or Urea. Sixty eight percent of farmers were also applying manure as a source of organic fertilizer to their crop. However, the average yield was 6 tons/ha, compare national average of 11.9 t/ha in 2008. Farmers and extension staff mentioned pests and diseases, limited access to improved varieties and clean seed, low soil fertility and limited knowledge of crop management as main constraints that affect potato production in the area. Based on these results technical issues, areas of research interventions and recommendations for improving potato production in the area have been indicated. &nbsp; Key words: Potato, Malawi, soil fertility management, production constraints.

Grain sorghum [Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench] is an important food crop of semiarid sub‐Saharan Africa. Crop yields are generally low, partly due to low soil fertility. Research was conducted with farmers to evaluate, soil fertility management practices in sorghum‐based cropping systems including: mucuna [Mucuna pruriens (L.) DC.] fallow; cowpea [Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp.] rotation with sorghum; animal manure application; N and P fertilizer application; and reduced tillage. Four studies, comprised of 142 on‐farm trials, were conducted at three locations over 3 yr in drought‐prone parts of eastern Uganda. Mucuna on average produced 7 Mg ha−1 of aboveground dry matter containing 160 kg N ha−1 across the three locations. Application of 2.5 Mg ha−1 of manure and of 30 kg N plus 10 kg P ha−1 increased grain yield by 1.05 and 1.30 Mg ha−1, respectively. A combination of 2.5 Mg ha−1 manure with 30 kg N ha−1 increased grain yield by 1.50 Mg ha−1 above the control (1.1 Mg ha−1). The increase in sorghum grain yield in response to 30 kg N ha−1 alone, to a mucuna fallow, and to a rotation with cowpea was 1.15, 1.55, and 0.82 Mg ha−1, respectively. These soil fertility management practices, as well as reduced tillage, were found to be cost effective in increasing sorghum yield in the predominantly smallholder agriculture where inorganic fertilizer was not used much. On‐farm profitability and food security for sorghum production systems can be improved by use of inorganic fertilizers, manure, mucuna fallow, sorghum–cowpea rotation, and reduced tillage.

Determinants of soil fertility management practices in Gedeo Zone, Southern Ethiopia: logistic regression approach

The smallholder farming systems in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) are highly diverse and heterogeneous in terms of biophysical and socio-economic characteristics. This study was conducted in upper Eastern Kenya (UEK) to categorize farm households and determine the influence of socio-economic characteristics (SeC) and soil fertility management practices (SFMP) on soil fertility across farms. Conditioned Latin hypercube sampling (cLHS) was performed to determine 69 soil sampling sites within Meru and Tharaka Nithi counties. From each household (whose field soil sample was obtained), data relating to resource endowment and soil fertility management were collected through a household questionnaire survey. Standard laboratory procedures were used to analyse soil samples. Data reduction was performed using categorical principal component analysis (CATPCA) (for SeC and SFMP) and standard principal component analysis (PCA) (for soil properties). Two-step cluster analysis identified three distinct farm categories or farm types (FT), namely, low fertility farms (FT1), moderately fertile farms (FT2), and fertile farms (FT3). The correlation of clusters against soil properties was significant across pH, soil organic carbon (SOC), cation exchange capacity (CEC), available P, plant available K, and exchangeable bases. FT1 had low SOC, pH, CEC and available P (soil characteristics), low usage of fertilizer and manure (soil fertility management), and smaller household size, lower income, and smaller farm size (socio-economic). FT2 had lower SOC (compared to FT3) and available P. In terms of soil fertility management, FT2 had higher cases of fallowing and composting with moderate fertilizer usage. Households in this category had moderate income, family size, and land size (socio-economic). FT3 had relatively high SOC, pH, CEC, and mineral nutrients. This farm type was characterized by high fertilizer use (soil fertility management) as well as larger household size, higher income, and larger farm size (socio-economic). The results indicate the importance of nutrient management in enhancing soil quality. Delineation and characterization of farms based on the various parameters including resource endowment reveal imbalanced farm resource flows, suggesting a need for locally tailored interventions suited for location-specific conditions to facilitate improved targeting of soil fertility-enhancing technologies and sustainable crop production regimes. While fertilizer is one of the most critical inputs for enhancing agricultural production, it is a major contributor to nitrous oxide emissions from agriculture and can have negative environmental effects on soil biota and water sources. Farmers’ knowledge on the use of fertilizer is thus necessary in developing strategies (such as integrated approach) to promote its efficient use and minimize its detrimental impacts.

China's rural economic reforms radically altered land tenure in rural China. With the granting of land use rights and residual income rights to farming households between 1979 and 1983, agriculture shifted from a collective-based to a familybased system. Land was not privatized, however. Ownership remained "collective", with local officials, typically at the village level, exercising a major influence over the allocation of land and the way households could use land. The initial land allocations to families were typically based on household size, household labour supply, or both. The central government's policy was that these allocations were supposed to be for 15 years. In some villages, land use contracts have been respected; in other villages, however, local leaders have periodically redistributed land among households and have intervened throughout the reform period to determine how farmers are able to use the land. The initial reforms triggered an unprecedented acceleration of agricultural growth in China. From 1979 to 1984, the gross value of agricultural output increased in real terms at an annual rate of 7.6 per cent, and grain production rose by 4.9 per cent annually.' Empirical studies attribute a significant part of this increase to enhanced incentives, as farmers were able to keep the output and

Green Revolution technology gains in agricultural productivity and food security were widely associated with irrigated lands. However, there are now widespread problems associated with the use of chemical fertilisers, mismanagement of surface water and overexploitation of groundwater. Potential for expanding irrigated agriculture is decreasing and hence rainfed agriculture remains high on India’s development agenda. As a major provider of organic manure, livestock are crucial to the stability of dryland agriculture. Soil fertility management affects not only farmers but also landless poor, cattle owners and shepherds. Based on the fieldwork done in Andhra Pradesh, this study explores the local farmers’ in-depth knowledge on soil fertility management, and the cultural and socioeconomic web woven around these practices. Both qualitative and quantitative methods were used for understanding the farmers’ soil fertility management practices and the conditions under which they adopt such practices. The present study revealed that farmers in semiarid regions are actively managing soil fertility and other soil properties through diverse practices that are based on local resources and knowledge. This study highlights the contribution of organic matter by traditional soil fertility management practices in maintaining soil fertility. Regression analysis revealed that “large ruminants” is a key variable influencing soil fertility. The empirical results of this study call for an argument to be made for an approach to supporting soil fertility management by farmers that is more attuned to the range of circumstances that is found on the ground and best suits the long-term productivity of soils.