Vanguardia en retaguardia. La iglesia de Ribadelago (Zamora), 1960-63

The article highlights secular influences in contemporary understandings of liturgical participation by exploring the relationship between visions of the early modern liturgical movement and contemporary ways of understanding participation in the Church of Sweden. The constructs opine, understand, and do are used in the comparison as are the concepts participatio plena, participatio conscia, and participatio actuosa in Sacrosanctum Concilium. An overall reflection based on the analysis is that secular ideologies and trends not only influence liturgical form but tend to erode theological language itself. Religious individualism, combined with “internal ecclesial secularization,” tends to imbue the very understanding of church and of liturgy. A new phase in the liturgical movement called the “late modern liturgical movement” is discussed. The church appears here as the “church of the individual” and the liturgy in the sense of ordo is seen as an “open” order and framework, rather than as juxtaposition and sacramental event.

The 20th-century liturgical movement grew in tandem with the biblical, ecumenical, ecclesiological, and patristic movements, all part of a wider movement of resourcement—a return to biblical and patristic sources. Indeed, the success of the liturgical movement in the 20th century, ultimately ratified in the liturgical reforms of the Second Vatican Council (1962–1965), can be seen precisely in its collaboration with those other ecclesial movements for church reform. Especially important was the ecumenical liturgical cooperation that grew across denominational lines as the movement took shape in different churches. Belgian Benedictine Lambert Beauduin (d. 1960) of Mont César is considered the founder of the Roman Catholic liturgical movement; during a national Catholic labor conference, held in Malines in September 1909, he delivered a conference on the liturgy as the “true prayer of the Church.” Taking his cue from Pope Pius X’s 1903 motu proprio “Tra le sollecitudini,” in which he spoke of the liturgy as “the true and indispensible source” for the Christian life, Beauduin argued that liturgy was foundational for Christian mission and social outreach. This message was consistent with the parish communion movement within the Church of England at the dawn of the 20th century and, indeed, in what the founder of the liturgical movement within the Church of England, A. Gabriel Hebert, S. S. M., wrote in his classic 1935 text Liturgy and Society. In Germany, the movement centered on the Benedictine monastery of Maria Laach and was more scientific in scope. Soon the movement took hold in Austria, France, and the rest of Europe, as well as in the Americas, in Anglican, Lutheran, and Roman Catholic churches in particular. It is precisely because of this common return to the sources that the 20th-century liturgical movement can only be understood in its wider ecumenical context.

Reviewed by: Saint John’s Abbey Church: Marcel Breuer and the Creation of a Modern Sacred Space by Victoria M. Young Fr. Harry Hagan, osb Victoria M. Young. Saint John’s Abbey Church: Marcel Breuer and the Creation of a Modern Sacred Space. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2014. 240 pp. $34.95. In the early 1950s, St. John’s Abbey was facing an overwhelming need for more space. Quickly the community saw that its homemade solutions were inadequate to meet the extraordinary vision that had been growing among them for some time. Dr. Victoria Young deftly sets this story into a larger context and then creates a sense of the people who set out to expand and realize this vision by building a world-class liturgical space that would serve the prayer of St. John’s and become a witness to the Catholic Church in the United States and beyond. Young opens with the consecration of the church in 1961—the year before the Second Vatican Council began. In various ways, the book makes it clear that the Catholic liturgical reform codified by that council did not suddenly appear but had been developing for some time. The first chapter, “Bricks and Brothers,” sets St. John’s into its larger Benedictine context and then into its midwestern context. Young nicely summarizes the modern liturgical movement which gathered momentum with Pius X calling for the faithful to take an active role in the liturgy [End Page 149] (19). She shows how Benedictines both in Europe and in the United States played a central role in this movement that sought the full, active participation of all in the liturgy. St. John’s itself served as a leader, especially through the work of Virgil Michel, osb (1890–1938) and Godfrey Deikman, osb (1908–2002). The second chapter, called “The Twelve Apostles,” opens with Abbot Baldwin and the monks proposing a competition for a hundred year master plan which would include a new abbey church. The document states: “We feel that the modern architect with his orientation toward functionalism and honest use of materials is uniquely qualified to produce a Catholic work” (32). Young notes that “function had become the lynchpin of a new architectural philosophy with architect Walter Gropius’s founding in 1919 of the Bauhaus in Weimar, Germany” (32, 72). Yes, but Louis Sullivan, the great Chicago architect (1856–1924), famously formulated this “linchpin” as “form follows function.” One could even argue that it reflects two midwestern trademarks: practicality and simplicity. Midwesterners, though their love for the tried and the true may cloud the issue, have a genuine affinity for the elegant simplicity of practicality realized by modern architecture. No one should be surprised that with the leadership of Cummins, Inc.—a maker of diesel engines—Columbus, Indiana, has become a museum of modern architecture. Abbot Baldwin and the building committee invited twelve architects for interviews. None of the five Europeans could come; still Young surveys their work to give a sense of Europe’s vitality. Of the seven American based architects, five came for visits. Marcel Breuer, Walter Gropius, and Richard Neutra had roots in the German-speaking world; Joseph Murphy and Barry Byrne were based in the Midwest. Young gives particular attention to Byrne, a prominent architect of the Prairie School deeply involved in the Catholic liturgical movement; he had built St. Columba Church (1949) in Minneapolis, Minnesota, and was designing a new church for St. Benedict’s Abbey, Atchison, Kansas (1957). Although there is no real narrative suspense, Young provides an interesting report of each visit along with what impressed or concerned the committee. In the end, she shows how they came to see Breuer as the best candidate. While their reasons were many, Young, like Isabelle Hymnen before her, underlines Breuer’s willingness to listen and collaborate with the monastic community (63). Also he brought an international dimension to this midwestern project. “Building the Spiritual Axis,” the third chapter, tells the story of the church’s design, development, and execution. It reveals how Breuer with [End Page 150] the monastic community created a sacred path that begins with the justly famous bell banner and then moves through the...

Reviewed by: The Forces of Form in German Modernism by Malika Maskarinec Josh Todarello (bio) Malika Maskarinec. The Forces of Form in German Modernism. Northwestern University Press, 2018. 199 pages. The Forces of Form in German Modernism takes its title from Heinrich Wöllflin’s 1886 Prolegomena zu einer Psychologie der Architektur, in which Wöfflin coins the term “Formkraft” (in English, “the force of form”) to name the force that opposes gravity and holds human bodies upright. This conflict between gravity and a will that strives, against it, toward uprightness is fundamental to Maskarinec’s book. Out of this opposition comes a concept of form—not the Platonic, ideal form, preexistent, always there, the true and eternal reality—but rather a mechanistic idea of form that emerges out of a contest of conflicting and reciprocally intensifying forces. It is, one might say, embodied, bound to the earth, always struggling, always precarious, ever seeking a state of upright equilibrium. Maskarinec argues that the concept of corporeal uprightness is integral to German modernism as an aesthetic and corporeal ideal. Early 20th- century aesthetics, Maskarinec says, embraces classical mechanics and the “optimistic” law of the conservation of energy and eschews or rejects the “pessimistic” second law of thermodynamics. Modernism, like the classic aesthetic it brings into the 20th century, rejects a descent into formlessness, entropy, horizontality, and affirms uprightness. The book is divided into three thematic sections: An Aesthetics of Heaviness; Empathy and Abstraction; and Poetic Gravity. These sections explore concepts of heaviness, equilibrium, and force across various media and degrees of the literal and figurative. To this end the book brings philosophy, architecture, sculpture, and literature into conversation around the central theme of weight and will. Each chapter reads a particular thinker, artist, or work of art in these terms of weight and will, force and form. Specifically, Schopenhauer, Rodin, Klee, Kafka, and Döblin’s Berlin Alexanderplatz are all read in these terms. The first chapter on Schopenhauer and architecture lays out most of the theoretical language the book will employ throughout the other sections. Essential to this chapter is the aforementioned reciprocally determined concept of form. The book traces this concept from Newton’s ideas of repulsion and attraction, through Kant’s critique of Newton (who could not explain the repulsive force), and into Schopenhauer’s theory of architecture. An architectural structure embodies this reciprocally intensifying relationship: the “will” of the structure strives upward while, at the same time, the structure is pulled toward the ground by the force of attraction, the gravitational force. The structure is thus suspended in a sort of tension between complete dissolution, if it were to succumb to gravity, and a pure levitation or expansion, if it could be free of the attractive force of gravity. It is this precarious state of suspension that all artworks embody, and because we, as humans, also embody this tension, this state of dramatic suspense, we can “empathize” with artworks. The greater the mass, the greater the drama of force. An aesthetics of heaviness, Maskarinec argues, champions the dynamic properties of matter and so casts it as an agent of form. Matter, gravity, force—entwined in each [End Page 798] other—the book argues, make aesthetic experience possible. It is a compelling, if somewhat reductive, idea. The second chapter offers a reading of Rodin’s sculpture that investigates the widely held claim that Rodin’s work epitomizes the modern epoch. Maskarinec’s reading challenges, or augments, traditionally held notions of modernity as an age of anxiety and Rodin’s sculpture, to paraphrase Leo Steinberg, as a passport to this epoch of anxiety. Rodin’s contemporaries, according to Maskarinec, do indeed read Rodin’s work as exemplifying modernity, but they fail to see it as a condition of anxiety. Maskarinec brings to this discussion Georg Simmel and Carl Burckhardt, both of whom wrote as Rodin’s contemporaries about his work. Citing extensively from both Burckhardt and Simmel, the chapter includes detailed discussions of Balzac and Les bourgeois de Calais, two of Rodin’s major pieces, which convincingly support Maskarinec’s alternative reading of both Rodin and modernism. Georg Simmel, for example, writes that we read vertigo (and...

This report presents a professional journey devoted to the restoration of modern architecture through three emblematic projects carried out between the 1980s and 2000s: the Kunstgewerbemuseum und Kunstgewerbeschule in Zurich, the Hallenstadion in Zurich, and the Bauhaus in Dessau. The author, whose formative experience was influenced bu an experience in late-1970s socialist Poland, developed a deep and enduring focus on the Modern Movement and on the challenges of conserving twentieth-century architecture. The first case, the Zurich School and Museum of Applied Arts (1933, Egender and Steger), exemplifies a restoration approach based on in-depth material and chromatic analysis, aimed at preserving the building’s original constructive and polychromatic authenticity.The second project, the Hallenstadion (1938–39, Egender and Müller), highlights the need to reconcile heritage protection, functional adaptation, and economic sustainability—transforming a historic sports hall into a versatile contemporary venue while safeguarding its architectural integrity. Finally, the restoration plan for the Bauhaus in Dessau (1926, Gropius) establishes a scientific methodology for modern heritage conservation, grounded in material surveys, historical research, and the formulation of preservation guidelines in collaboration with the Stiftung Bauhaus Dessau and international heritage organizations. In conclusion, the experiences outlined define a methodological framework for the conservation of modern architecture based on knowledge, interdisciplinary analysis, and respect for historical and cultural value, ensuring the continued vitality of the Modern Movement’s built heritage.

The twentieth century was a time of massive upheaval in the intellectual, theological and architectural spheres of society. Two world wars, massive post-war population growth and a building boom coincided with the Second Vatican Council and the liturgical movement within the Christian churches, and encountered the modern movement in architecture. This prompted a demand for a re-evaluation of church building design. In Brisbane, new approaches to church building design emerged in the 1960s, with widely divergent results. The architects, denominations and church parishes within the city — although all sought to address liturgical change and emphasise the active participation of the congregation in the services — held different opinions on how the quintessential church characteristics, immanence and transcendence, could be adapted to modern times. Analysing three exemplary Christian churches in Brisbane, this article demonstrates how in each of these designs their architects sought to evoke immanence and transcendence in a decisively new and modern manner, seeking inspiration from progressive ideas in Europe, Britain and America while striving to create buildings suited to the climate of South-East Queensland. Liturgical change, modern architecture and regional climate considerations provided compounding opportunities to rethink church design from first principles.

<p id=\x-docs-internal-guid-ac09a30a-7fff-4d21-88c7-5907be017e46\>The promulgation of the 1969 reformed Roman Missal represents one of the most important events in modern religious history. The transition to the “Novus Ordo” Mass symbolized the end of an era of traditionalism and the beginning of an era of modern Catholicism. At first glance, this transition seemed to take the Church by storm. After over a hundred years of papal condemnations of progressive schools of thought, in the 1960s, progressive scholars were invited by Rome to oversee a general reform of the Mass, the religion’s central act of worship. The ultimate fruit of this labor, the Novus Ordo Missal, was met only with minimal resistance on the part of the faithful. What conditions made the smooth transition to the reformed Missal possible? \r This thesis seeks to demonstrate that the liturgical reforms of the 1960s and 70s would not have been possible without the progressive movements which took place in Catholicism in the 19th and 20th centuries which preceded it. While the hierarchy of the Catholic Church maintained a sort of “fortress mentality” in relation to progressive academia since the late 18th century, ultimately these efforts failed to prevent a progressive form of the religion from growing in popularity by the middle of the 20th century. This thesis chronicles the rise of this progressive form of Catholicism and contextualizes the 20th century Liturgical Movement within this wider movement.\r After an overview of the terminology used in this thesis and an examination of the history of the Roman Rite, the main body of this thesis will examine the writings and actions of the scholars of the Liturgical Movement. Amongst them, the writings of Annibale Bugnini, who is rightly referred to as the “father of the conciliar reform,” will hold an important place. \r Histories of the reform and the progressive movements in 20th century Catholicism will be considered from writers of a variety of perspectives. The writings of progressive scholars who were personally in favor of the reforms such as Richard McBrien, Joseph Kelly, and Rita Ferrone will be balanced by the highly critical writings of Catholic traditionalists such as Michael Davies, Christopher Ferrara, and Thomas Woods who personally opposed the reforms. Due to linguistic and research limitations, most of the accounts in the 10th chapter concerning the particular implementation of the Novus Ordo are limited to English speaking nations.\r In a sense, nearly all of the secondary literature on this topic falls into an ambiguous state somewhere between a secondary source examining the liturgical changes and a primary source reacting to them. Few have written on this topic who did not possess some sort of personal investment in the topic due to the role that it played in their own spiritual lives. For this reason, this thesis attempts to include a balance of secondary sources from progressive, traditionalist, and conservative Catholic writers since all three of these perspectives demonstrate ways in which the Novus Ordo has been received by the modern Catholic Church.

The article investigates the interaction between the memory phenomenon and avant-garde architecture by reviewing international and Soviet examples of how memory worked in the 1920-30s architecture, reminiscences of the avant-garde in the 20th-21st century architecture, and the latest inclusions of modernist and avant-garde architecture in current memory. Today, the avant-garde architecture occupies a place in the history of architecture not simply as a practice of denying the past and pursuing innovation, but as an era of fascination with great ideas based on a strong cultural foundation that made it possible to dream of the future. The avant-garde era played a great role in the formation of the entire architecture of the Modern Movement, and definition of the values and paradigms of modernity. The contemporary architectural avant-garde of the 21st century, for which one of the main tasks is the reception and translation of memory, serves as an embodiment of search for harmonious interaction between the past and the present. Examples are considered and conclusions are drawn about the nature of the interaction between avant-garde architecture and the phenomenon of memory.

The book proposes a survey of buildings from the first half of the 20th century in Europe. A first article will give an overview of the spread of the buildings from this time in Europe, focusing on a new construction material: the reinforced concrete, on the basis of a chapter from the doctorate thesis of Maria Bostenaru supervised by Cristina Gociman. For the documentation of these, Maria Bostenaru did study trips to investigate the buildings on site in the past 15 years. At the basis of these study trips was the literature review in the field, from which we highlight the references provided by a study seminar at the University of Karlsruhe about architecture in the first half of the 20th century in Eastern Europe and the series of books on 20th century architecture by Prestel. Apart of this monographs dedicated to the countries subject of the research were consulted. The result of the research on site were mostly the investigation through photography of the facade, which displayed a new language compared to the previous period. Where it was possible, this was combined with the investigation of the interior space. Also, sources of the floor plan were looked for, from the references but mostly from archives. As a result, the book includes a review of the study trips documentation, with example images, references and the connection to the online database of photography. The online database built the subject of a common research of Maria Bostenaru with Alex Dill during a short visit funded by NeDiMAH at the Karlsruhe Institute of Technology and the goal of this publication is to document this database. Browsing the database is predecesed by forms on selected architects, for which we present also the biography, along with main works and visual material. In the idea of forms are also the posters of Cristina Gociman about Romanian architects which created cultural heritage during this time. The research thus started at the University of Karlsruhe, where Alex Dill, chair of DOCOMOMO Germany (The association for the documentation and conservation of buildings, sites and neighbourhoods of the Modern Movement) approached the second pillar of the association apart of documentation: conservation. A series of workshops were dedicated to invite specialists from different countries, thematically organised, who were involved in conserving these buildings. The book contains reviews of these conferences and a chapter by Alex Dill about this conservation.

This article deals with the development of the Roman Missal from the Council of Trent to the Second Vatican Council. Although the Apostolic constitution Quo Primum forbade any changes to the Pope Pius V’s text of the Missal, new general revisions of the Missal and other changes were made during the 17th century and later. The description and the analysis of these changes are the key subject of this paper. Major attention is also given to the Synod of Pistoia, which was the leading liturgical event of the 18th century. Many liturgical reforms (such as the active participation of the people in the liturgy and the translating the Latin text into the vernacular) rejected and condemned at that time have been implemented since Vatican II . Similar efforts to restore the liturgy have appeared in the 19th and 20th centuries within the Liturgical movement. Nevertheless, not even the last publication of the Missal just before the opening of Vatican II could reflect this development.

Desde los años 20 del pasado siglo confluyen progresivamente en ámbito católico dos importantes corrientes culturales: el Movimiento moderno de arquitectura, con su espíritu de renovación formal bajo el lema “la forma sigue a la función”, y el Movimiento litúrgico, que aspiraba a ayudar a los fieles a participar más fructuosamente en la celebración del culto. El resultado será un impulso de renovación que modificará notablemente la forma del templo cristiano, al punto que se puede considerar el siglo XX uno de los momentos de cambio más importantes para la historia de la arquitectura sagrada. Este proceso sin embargo no estará exento de desequilibrios, que manifiestan la dificultad del diálogo entre estos dos movimientos contemporáneos.

Beginning with the Renaissance, the architecture of churches in the West was shaped by new cultural and liturgical demands that reshaped the spaces of Christian worship. Renaissance Christians found models of urban monumentality and geometric harmony in the architecture of classical Rome that they deemed lacking in their existing Gothic forms. At the same time, both Catholics and Protestants placed new emphasis on preaching and on the ability of worshipers to see the liturgy. These factors decisively reshaped church architecture. The rational austerity of the Renaissance, however, soon gave way to the more exuberant decoration of the baroque and, in time, to a revival of the Gothic. Beginning in the late 18th century, it became valued for its association with mystery, organic development, and the endurance of faith amid the rise of scientific rationalism. By the mid-19th century, an eclecticism in architecture had developed where many church builders used varied styles to actualize buildings of many plans in order to bring the desired historical and emotional associations to the structure, or simply to distinguish it from its neighbors. Yet, architectural principles—often associated with the Gothic—that emphasized the integral relation of form, structure, and function led many church builders to embrace architectural modernism. They rejected applied ornament, especially that which hid the structure of the building. Concrete, steel, and glued laminated wood beams made possible new designs often with a minimalist aesthetic and innovative ground plans. As in the 16th, so in the 20th century this architectural shift was associated with new values and liturgical demands. For many there was a fundamental concern with the architectural expression of the immanence of God. Historical styles and dim light seemed wrongly to suggest that God was not part of the contemporary world. Along with this, liturgical ressourcement fostered throughout the 20th century by the Liturgical Movement and endorsed by the Second Vatican Council championed the idea that liturgy was “the work of the people,” a corporate activity in which all participated. This led to the development of the “modern communal church” as a liturgical form. Many historic buildings were significantly altered. Within thirty years, a sizable revolution was insisting on more traditional, often classical, architectural forms ensuring that future church building would be shaped by a dialogue between tradition and the modern.

Bilingual education for the deaf is always necessary. This text discusses sign languages since antiquity, passing through researchers in different times and countries. The recognition of deaf cultural and historical heritage contributes to the formation of deaf identities. Is it possible to say that Berthier and Bébian, French teachers of the 19th century, contributed to sign languages becoming an identity mark? What was the work performed by Huet in Brazil and Le Clerc in the United States? Moreover, why are French, Brazilian, and American sign languages similar? This article aims to disclose the actions that preceded William C. Stokoe in the construction of sign languages such as the work perpetrated by Berthier, who was deaf, and Bébian, first hearing teacher at the Institute of Deaf-Mute in Paris, who was bilingual, giving classes in sign language, at that time called mimicry. Historical research will be the method to achieve this goal. The work of Bébian <i>Mimographie or Essai d’écriture mimique, propre a régulariser le langue des sourds-muets</i> (1825) will be analyzed. It was the first attempt to graphically register sign language. Psychologists and philosophers, by the end of 19th century and beginning of the 20th century, analyzed the evolution of the term, from mimicry to polyglossy, and, finally, sign language. Some plates of Bebian’s Mimography will be shown and analyzed in this paper, concluding to emphasize that French sign language had a proper grammar, differing from spoken French. Recognizing the efforts of these researchers as forerunners of the fundamentals of sign languages enhances Stokoe’s linguistic research.

Studies of diachronic change in sign languages are only available for a small number of sign languages, in part due to the scarcity of historical resources for sign languages. This article presents the first study of diachronic change in Nederlandse Gebarentaal ‘Dutch Sign Language’ (NGT) and Vlaamse Gebarentaal ‘Flemish Sign Language’ (VGT). It looks at the impact of an artificial sign system on the lexicons of the Gestel variant of NGT and the Limburg variant of VGT. The recovery of two 19th century manuscripts describing 3,000 signs and 7,000 signs of this system respectively enables us to compare this artificial system with published data for NGT and VGT from the 1950s and the present. We focus on the resilience of an artificial distinction that is not considered distinctive in other natural sign languages, i.e., an absolute left/right distinction for gender marking in kinship terms. The results show that the NGT and VGT variants have partially changed or replaced all the artificial signs, except UNCLE/AUNT, NEPHEW/NIECE in NGT and PARENTS in VGT. The partial changes shed light on the mechanisms through which artificial elements are nativized to fit the phonological system of these sign languages. The changes observed in the left/right paradigm have implications for our understanding of the distribution of laterality in sign language phonology in general. Finally, the impact of the highly restricted access to language models that were part of the strict oralist approaches in these school, and the consequent impoverished language input on diachronic change and lexical innovation are discussed.

REVIEWS571 b.Edward Klima and Ursula Bellugi. 1979. The signs of language. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. [A classic] c.Tom Humphries and Carol Padden. 1992. Learning American Sign Language. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. [A basic textbook; combination ofgood illustrations and vocabulary index provides a good basic dictionary.] d.Clayton Valli and Ceil Lucas. 1992. Linguistics of American Sign Language. Washington, DC: Gallaudet University Press. [Linguistically oriented discussion of key phenomena in ASL; relies on Liddell & Johnson's 1989 Movement Hold model.] II. Background on the major current models of ASL phonology: a.Movement Hold model: Scott Liddell and Robert Johnson. 1989. American Sign Language : The phonological base. Sign Language Studies 64.195-277. b.Hand Tier model: Wendy Sandler. 1989. Phonological representation of the sign: Linearity and nonlinearity in American Sign Language. Dordrecht: Foris. c.Moraic model: David Perlmutter. 1991. Prosodie vs. segmental structure: A moraic theory of American Sign Language syllable structure. La JoIIa: University of California, San Diego, ms. [See also Perlmutter's article in this volume.] d.Harmonic model: Diane Brentari. 1990. Theoretical foundations of American Sign Language phonology. Chicago: University of Chicago dissertation. REFERENCES Fischer Susan D., and Patricia Siple (eds.) 1990. Theoretical issues in sign language research, vol. 1. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Liddell, Scott, and Robert Johnson. 1989. American Sign Language: The phonological base. Sign Language Studies 64.195-277. Lucas, Ceil (ed.) 1990. Sign language research: Theoretical issues. Washington, DC: Gallaudet University Press. Perlmutter, David M. 1989. A moraic theory of American Sign Language syllable structure. La Jolla: University of California, San Diego, ms. Stack, Kelly M. 1988. Tiers and syllable structure in American Sign Language: Evidence from phonotactics. Los Angeles: University of California M.A. thesis. Stokoe, William. 1960. Sign language structure: An outline of the visual communication systems of the American Deaf. (Studies in linguistics, occasional papers 8.) Washington, DC: Gallaudet College Press. [Republished 1993, Silver Spring, MD: Linstok Press.] Valli, Clayton, and Ceil Lucas. 1992. Linguistics of American Sign Language. Washington, DC: Gallaudet University Press. Department of Linguistics[Received 7 February 1994.] Stanford University Stanford, CA 94305-2150 [uyechi(r non-subj + verb 8481374132511341018 546 % of main clauses 53% 64%61% 54% 51% 28% Table 1. Loss of null subjects and verb second. REVIEWS575 i.e. an inflectional paradigm of category X. R argues that modern English has neither Agr ' nor T ' , and therefore neither Agr nor T may host selected incorporation. The loss of these elements is related to the loss of inflectional paradigms of the categories Agr and T (244). A negative setting of 4 for T and Agr entails that (a) theta-assigning verbs may not raise to T or Agr, (b) lexical insertion of free morphemes into T and Agr becomes possible, and, more curiously and untestably, (c) given the treatment of incorporation types, one expects the emergence of 'a second specifier position for Agr (or Agr/T) after Agr-1 is lost' (245; this permits preverbal adverbs). As is now standard, R attributes inverted verbs (5a), verbs to the left of negatives (5b), and verbs separated from their complement (5c) to the movement of the verb to a distinct functional position associated with features of finiteness, which he takes to be Agr. (5)a. Wilt thow ony thinge with hym? 'Do you want anything with him?' b.My wyfe rose nott. 'My wife didn't get up.' c./ wende wel thys nyght to have deyed. 'Tonight I almost managed to die.' He dates the loss of V-io-Agr and the obsolescence of 5 as mid- 16th century, attributing the many examples of inverted verbs, etc., in the 17th century to archaic 'high style'; this is not implausible. However, he takes Agr ' to be a manifestation of 'rich' agreement, the same element which helps to license null subjects (entailing that if a language has null subjects, then it has V-ío-Agr movement, but not vice versa; 271). Departing from the tradition of bandying about terms like rich/poor and strong/weak with abandon, he seeks to quantify the notion in a falsifiable fashion (6), examining relevant data from several languages. (6)Agr ~ ' is postulated only ifthere is overt, distinct morphological plural...