Valorization of Oil Cakes for Various Applications: A Comprehensive Review

Ngadirojo District was one of the centers of beef cattle business development in Wonogiri Regency. But the business done by farmers has not yet produced an optimal income. The purpose of this service activity was to empower farmers by increasing farmers' knowledge through the application of organic fertilizer-based fertilizer production technologies for beef cattle manure and biogas waste so as to increase the income of farmers. The method of this community service activity was through FGD (Focus Group Discussion), counseling, training and demonstration plots on technology for organic fertilizer and biogas production. The result of this activity was an increase in knowledge of farmers after attending counseling and training on organic fertilizer and biogas production technology. Farmers in Gemawang and Gedong Ngadirojo villages have benefited from the construction of biogas installations and the processing of livestock waste into organic fertilizer. The conclusion of this activity was the effort of empowerment through counseling activities and training on processing livestock waste into organic fertilizer and biogas showing success and running effectively as seen from the increasing knowledge of respondents after participating in counseling and training activities.

Organic wastes disposal without sufficient treatment by both Tani Makmur Association Farmer Groups and Alcohol Industry Small and Medium Enterprises in Ngombakan Village and chemical fertilizer application has indicated paddy soil quality decrease in surrounding area. IbM’s implementation as joint business pioneering trial in their organic wastes based fertilizer production is an effective strategy to solve those problems. Mainly, the activity purpose is to transfer technology of organic fertilizer production method from vinasse, cow dung, rice straw, and paddy soil. Th etechnologywhich be transferred consist ofvinasse pre-treatment, rice straw and paddy soil-based bioactivator production and propagation, organic fertilizer production using double composting method from vinasse, cow dung, and rice straw with rice straw and paddy soil-based bioactivator, and its organic fertilizer products application into rice plant. The techology transfer methods used are giving talks & discussion, demonstration & practice, and accompaniment. Event was attended by 25 participants from Tani Makmur Association Farmer Groups and 6 participants from Ngombakan Alcohol Industry Small and Medium Enterprises. In this activity, given 4 liquid organic composter having capacity 60 L, 10 L of bioactivator (consortium of Azotobacter, phosphate solubilizing bacteria, and sellulolitic bacteria), bioactivator propagation tools, 2 pre-treatment vinasse drums having capacity 200 L, and leaflet for each transfer tecnology topics. Results of activity showed an increased the ability to do vinasse pre-treatment for Ngombakan Alcohol Industry Small and Medium Enterprises, and to propagate bioactivator, to produce organic fertilizers, and to apply its products to their rice plant field for the farmers. Keywords : Bioactivator, Cow Dung, Organic Fertilizer, Rice Straw, Vinasse

Annotation Purpose. Summarize the regulatory and technological requirements for the production of organic (organo-mineral) fertilizers on the base of sewage sludge. Methods. Analysis and generalization of the requirements of regulatory documents on the management of organic waste and their use as raw materials for the production of organic fertilizers and soil improvers. Results. The current legislative, departmental and regulatory documentary base in Ukraine concerning the treatment of sediment resulting from biological sewage treatment at municipal wastewater treatment plants for its further use in agriculture as fertilizers is analysed. Indicators are identified and analysed to determine the possibility, feasibility, efficiency and scope of organic fertilizers produced using sewage sludge. The analysis of changes in the content of organic matter and total nitrogen in the sewage sludge during its storage at the sewage treatment plant sites is presented. The technological feasibility of using sludge of different shelf life in composting production has been determined. Conclusions 1. The regulatory framework of Ukraine contains a sufficiently complete list of indicators that should be met by organic raw materials (sewage sludge) for further use as organic fertilizers. Some of these indicators – bio security and heavy metals content – can be improved in the composting process of fertilizers. 2. Fresh sediment, as well as sediment accumulated in the last late autumn and winter periods, is of main value for use as a raw material in the production of organic fertilizers. 3. The use in the production of compost sludge stored on sludge sites for a period of half a year or more requires special control of the process of decontamination. In this case, it is advisable to use additional means of wastewater decontamination. Keywords: heavy metals, manure, humus, decontamination, composting, organic fertilizers, sewage sludge.

The circular economy is at the core of sustainable development. The generation of biogas from the massive quantity of agricultural waste biomass is one of the critical drivers of the circular economy. Biogas has enormous renewable energy potential and has multitudes of applications in today’s energy-intensive society. Oil cakes, a known Agri-waste, are the by-product of oil processing, and are rich in nutrients. The edible oil cakes mostly have been used as a cattle feed; however, non-edible oil cakes do not find many applications. Their production is continuously escalating as non-edible oils are increasingly used in biodiesel production. Recently, there is a lot of emphasis on biogas production from these oil cakes. This paper reviews in detail biogas production from both edible and non-edible oil cakes. Chemical composition and various other applications of the cakes are also reviewed in brief. The survey illustrates that multiple parameters such as inoculum sources, co-digestion and reactor design affect the biogas production. All those factors, along with biogas upgrading and the economy of the process, are reviewed. Finally, future research opportunities are suggested to improve the viability of the biogas production from oil cakes.

Organic fertilizer is effective in improving soil quality, and promoting crop growth. Combined organic and inorganic fertilization has been proved as a more favorable way to tobacco yield and quality. However, the mechanisms underlying tobacco yield and quality under combinations of different organic and inorganic fertilizer remain unclear. We conducted a 12-year tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum L.)-maize crop rotation field experiment in Yanhe experimental station, China to examine the yields and qualities of tobacco, soil nutrients, and extracellular enzyme activities associated with carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus cycles in response to different fertilization treatments. Five fertilization treatments (no fertilization; 75 kg N fertilizer ha–1; 450 kg oil cake ha–1 + 75 kg N fertilizer ha–1; 15,000 kg pig dung ha–1 + 60 kg N fertilizer ha–1; 3,000 kg straw ha–1 + 75 kg N fertilizer ha–1) were applied to tobacco while maize was fertilized with inorganic compound fertilizers. After 12 years of tobacco-maize rotation, the results showed that organic fertilizer additions elevate tobacco yield and quality, and the soil extracellular enzymes activities. Gram-negative bacteria, actinomycetes, and total soil microbial biomass were increased by organic fertilizer additions, both plant-based (oil cake and straw) and animal-based (pig dung) organics. The levels of soil organic matter, total organic carbon, total phosphorus and available phosphorus are higher in pig dung addition treatment than oil cake and straw additions. By variance analysis with respect to fertilization treatments, organic sources differentially affected the activities of diverse soil enzymes. The redundancy analysis gave that yield and quality of tobacco leaves (upper, middle, and lower leaves) positively related to soil extracellular enzyme activities. Based on analysis of yield and quality of tobacco leaves with extracellular enzyme activities and soil nutrients, it is suggested animal-based organic fertilizer, thus pig dung, should be used in combining with chemical fertilizers to improve the quality of tobacco and soil nutrients.

Phosphorus (P) is one of the limiting factors of eutrophication. P added to soil from fertilizer application could pose a threat to water quality. According to agricultural habits, swine manure (SM), oil cake (OC), biogas slurry (BS), commercial organic fertilizer (OF) and compound fertilizer (CF) were selected to compare their P losses on a slope-land under natural rainfall. The results showed that P losses of above fertilizers had significant differences (P < 0.05) compared with control. P losses order arranged by Duncan test showed as total P (TP): SM > OF > OC > CF > BS > CK, total dissolved P (TDP): SM > OF > BS > CF > OC > CK, and particulate P (PP): OC > SM > OF > CF > BS > CK. Concentrations of all the phosphorus forms increased with the increased rainfall. The ratio of TDP to TP gradually decreased after fertilizer application, and PP gradually increased. PP was the dominant form in surface runoff. Organic fertilizers had more P losses than inorganic fertilizers, even though both of them had obvious P losses.

Organic fertilizers have been identified as a sustainable agricultural practice that can enhance productivity and reduce environmental impact. Recently, the European Union defined and accepted insect frass as an innovative and emerging organic fertilizer. In the wider domain of organic fertilizers, mathematical and computational models have been developed to optimize their production and application conditions. However, with the advancement in policies and regulations, modelling has shifted towards efficiencies in the deployment of these technologies. Therefore, this paper reviews and critically analyzes the recent developments in the mathematical and computation modeling that have promoted various organic fertilizer products including insect frass. We reviewed a total of 35 studies and discussed the methodologies, benefits, and challenges associated with the use of these models. The results show that mathematical and computational modeling can improve the efficiency and effectiveness of organic fertilizer production, leading to improved agricultural productivity and reduced environmental impact. Mathematical models such as simulation, regression, dynamics, and kinetics have been applied while computational data driven machine learning models such as random forest, support vector machines, gradient boosting, and artificial neural networks have also been applied as well. These models have been used in quantifying nutrients concentration/release, effects of nutrients in agro-production, and fertilizer treatment. This paper also discusses prospects for the use of these models, including the development of more comprehensive and accurate models and integration with emerging technologies such as Internet of Things.

The aim of the article is to study the influence of the requirements of the green economy on the marketing strategies of fertilizer manufacturers. Analyses results. Fertilizer production is a significant sector of the economy and a necessary element of the production chain in agribusiness to achieve the required levels of yield and ensure food security. In addition, Ukrainian enterprises export a significant part of fertilizers to other countries. In the production of fertilizers, it is also possible to solve the ecologically important problem of waste disposal. Many of them have valuable compounds that can be effectively used by fertilizer manufacturers. Such production best meets the requirements of the green course and at the same time solves several of its tasks: waste processing; organic production; promoting the development of organic agriculture and the "from farm to fork" strategy. Marketing product strategies of producers of organic fertilizers should be aimed at constant improvement of production technologies with minimal impact on the environment and support of the ecosystem, for example, using renewable energy sources for production, but at the same time it should be taken into account that it should also be economically profitable. Marketing product strategies of producers of organic fertilizers should be aimed at search for better forms of organic fertilizers that are more efficiently absorbed by the soil, and nutrients are better and faster released and reach plants than other forms of fertilizers.It is important to improve the production of organic fertilizers from waste, which helps to solve the problem of their utilization and processing. Strategies for differentiating organic fertilizers for specific crops and their growing conditions with the best effect for the crop are important. Segmentation of the market according to the requirements of farmers for nutrients that are applied to the soil will help to stand out among competitors. For this, it is advisable for organic fertilizer producers to use innovative ways of development in the direction of meeting the specific needs of agricultural enterprises, because the type of soil, climate, and growing conditions affect the needs of plants in nutrients. Environmental packaging should be used for fertilizers. It must be either biodegradable or meet the requirements of recycling and reuse. Conclusions and perspectives for further research. Fertilizer production is an important component of the agribusiness chain. A green economy requires a reduction in the use of chemically synthesized substances in growing plants and an increase in the area of organic crop production. Thus, the future lies in organic fertilizers. The demand for them will only grow. The marketing strategies of fertilizer manufacturers should be aimed at the transition to the production of organic, safe products. It is important to use an innovative approach to finding the optimal production technology, with minimal impact on the environment, with the production of products that have the best effect on productivity, while not polluting the soil, water, air and plants.

Formulation of organic fertilizers were studied to support organic vegetable production in Benguet, Philippines. The formulated liquid organic fertilizers based on farmers’ concoctions showed very low nutrient contents. New formulations using legume seeds were done which resulted to higher nutrient contents. Likewise, solid organic fertilizers were formulated using locally available raw materials. A combination of 50% chicken manure, 20% sawdust, 20% sunflower leaves, 10% Alnus compost and Trichoderma gave the highest nutrient contents. The solid and reformulated organic liquid fertilizers and Trichoderma were tested on cabbage grown in farm under conversion to organic production. Lower yields were observed during the early part of conversion. However, after three years of conversion, the yields of cabbage had significantly increased which were comparable to the yield in conventional farms. The recommended rates of solid and liquid formulated organic fertilizers found effective for both cabbage are 10t/ha of formulated solid fertilizer and 60 ml/L of liquid fertilizer, respectively. The nutrient management system found effective for organic production of cabbage was the application of Trichoderma two weeks before planting and split application of solid organic fertilizers three times during the growing period, that is, before planting, 15 days after planting and 30 days after planting at the rate of 2.5, 2.5 and 5.0 t/ha, respectively. The organic liquid fertilizer was applied at the rate of 60 ml per liter of water 15 days after planting and every two weeks thereafter until cabbage heads have formed. This nutrient management system provided the crops the essential nutrients during the critical growth and reproductive stages which resulted to higher yields comparable to those produced in conventional farms.

Biogas production is a promising area for the development of alternative energy sources in Ukraine and in the world. The aim of this study is to investigate the possibilities of implementing individual biogas digesters in rural households in Ukraine and to determine the energy, economic and environmental benefits of biogas production from organic waste. As part of the study, an analysis of the main characteristics of households in Ukraine was carried out and the prerequisites for organising biogas production by households were determined. Household incomes were analysed, and it was determined that the costs of housing and communal services tend to grow. It was determined that the price of natural gas for the population over the past years has increased by almost 10 times, and thus replacing natural gas with biogas becomes especially relevant. The positive economic and environmental factors of using individual biogas plants in rural areas were characterised, and the theoretically possible potential of biogas production from household waste in Ukraine was calculated. Following this, a number of government measures to promote the proliferation of individual biogas plants were proposed. The economic benefits from the use of biogas were determined, including energy autonomy, the possibility of using organic fertilisers, and additional profit from the sale of surplus products. The ecological effect of using individual biogas plants will include the possibility of recycling organic waste and waste water, thus improving the hygiene situation for individual users. Individual biogas digesters constitute a promising direction in Ukraine in terms of energy (production of biogas) and ecological areas (household waste management and production of organic fertilisers). At present, the sector of individual biogas production from biowaste is not widely spread in Ukraine, due to the lack of state support and insufficient awareness among rural residents about the benefits of biogas technology. In this research we determined the economic efficiency of the construction and operation of an individual biogas plant. Considering the average price of natural gas in Ukraine (229.9 USD per 1000 m3), the use of a biogas plant would save 144.1 USD annually on the purchase of natural gas. Given that the cost of building an individual biogas digester is 825.6 USD, its payback period would be 4.7 years.

Ukraine and Russia are among the leading global agricultural producers, accounting for millions of tons of global foodstuff and the production and exportation of organic fertilizers. With this in mind, the Russia-Ukraine war has caused an immense disruption and great supply shock in organic fertilizer and agricultural production, and food prices across the globe. The authors aimed to analyze the impact of the Russia-Ukraine war on agriculture, in particular organic fertilizers and agricultural production. The research employed a systematic research method to collect data on the extent of the impact of the war on organic fertilizers and food production. The research results indicate that the war has disrupted the supply of organic fertilizers, reducing agricultural products and subsequent rise in the price of agricultural produce. The research indicates that the rising cost of fertilizers directly influences food production and supply. The war has disrupted a viable environment for agricultural and organic production and exportation from these countries, causing the rise in food prices and a threat to food security across the globe. There is a need to ensure that international trade becomes more flexible and open in fertilizers and food production and exports. There is also a need to promote policy dialogues and market scrutiny, and transparency, especially with the uncertain global food market due to the disruptions influenced by the Russia-Ukraine war. The results of the study can be used by scientists, economists and public figures to build further forecasts of the state of agriculture, as well as to build strategies to improve the economy of some countries, including Ukraine

Anaerobic digestion of manure and crops provides the possibility of a combined production of renewable energy and organic fertilizer on organic farms and has been suggested as an option to improve sustainability of organic agriculture. In the present study, the consequences of implementation of anaerobic digestion and biogas production were analyzed on a 1000 ha model farm with combined dairy and cash crop production, representing organic agriculture in Denmark. The effects on crop rotation, nitrogen flows and losses, yield, energy balance and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions were evaluated for four scenarios of biogas production on the farm. Animal manure was digested for biogas production in all scenarios and was supplemented with: (1) 100 ha grass–clover for biogas, (2) 100 ha maize for biogas, (3) 200 ha grass–clover for biogas and reduced number of livestock, and (4) 200 ha grass–clover for biogas, reduced number of livestock and import of biomass from cuttings made in ungrazed meadows. These four scenarios were compared with the current situation in organic agriculture in Denmark and to a situation where slurry from conventional agriculture is no longer imported. Implementation of anaerobic digestion changed the nitrogen flows on the farm by increasing the slurry nitrogen plant availability and introducing new nitrogen sources from legume-based energy crops or meadows. The amount of nitrogen available for application as fertilizer on the farm increased when grass–clover was used for biogas production, but decreased when maize was used. Since part of the area was used for biogas production, the total output of foodstuffs from the farm was decreased. Effects on GHG emissions and net energy production were assessed by use of the whole-farm model FarmGHG. A positive farm energy balance was obtained for all biogas scenarios, showing that biomass production for biogas on 10% of the farm area results in an energy surplus, provided that the heat from the electricity production is utilized. The energy surplus implies a displacement of fossil fuels and thereby reduced CO2emission from the farm. Emissions of N2O were not affected substantially by biogas production. Total emissions of methane (CH4) were slightly decreased due to a 17–48% decrease in emissions from the manure store. Net GHG emission was reduced by 35–85% compared with the current situation in organic agriculture. It was concluded that production of biogas on organic farms holds the possibility for the farms to achieve a positive energy balance, provide self-sufficiency with organic fertilizer nitrogen, and reduce GHG emissions.

Background: The roots of Atractylodes macrocephala Koidzumi contain atractylone, which is used to suppress appetite and indigestion caused by gastrointestinal disturbance. The present study was conducted to investigate the effect of several organic compost on the growth and root yield of A. macrocephala with organic fertilizer. Methods and Results: When organic fertilizer was applied basally, the average yield of 10 a was 184.6 ㎏ in the HA (Hwanggeumjidae, organic material mix), 171.3 ㎏ in the GG (Gyunbaeyangchegreen, bacterial cuture filtrate) and 175.0 ㎏ in the CF (Customary fertilization, control) each other in practice of CF had no statistical significance. Atractylenolide I was significantly greater in the HA (0.036%) than the GG (0.034%) or CF (0.023%). With regard to the amount of organic fertilzer, 10 a yield ws the most common of 203.0 ㎏ at 2.0 times of the organic 1 (HA), conventional fertilization of 134.0 ㎏ and 173.0 ㎏ of no application was a statistically significant. Organic fertilizer 1 was 1.5 to 2.0 times, organic fertilizer was 2 to 1.5 times that were most suitable. Conclusions: The results of the present study indicated that HA and GG are the most suitable for the organic cultivation of A. macrocephala. The content of atractylone I was highest under the HA treatment and lowest under the CU (Chamjoa, oil cake), TG (Totogreen, plant oil cake) and HG (Heuksalgreen, Castor oil cake) treatment.

L-Glutaminase, an amidohydrolase enzyme has been a choice of interest in the treatment of leukaemia since the discovery of its anti-tumour properties. Because it is a potent anti leukemic agent and a flavor-enhancing agent used in the food industry, many researchers have focused their attention on L-glutaminase. L-Glutaminase is majorly produced by micro organisms including bacteria, yeast and fungi. In the present study, production of L-Glutaminase from fungi, Aspergillus wentii was reported. Solid state fermentation was followed in the study for the enzyme production using different agro-industrial by products which include coconut oil cake, sesame oil cake, groundnut oil cake and neem oil cake. Out of them potential substrates were screened and used as mixed substrate. Mixed substrate was selected by mixing coconut oil cake and sesame oil cake in different compositions. The best composition, 1.25gm coconut oil cake and 3.75gm sesame oil cake was selected. Effect of process parameters namely temperature, pH, incubation time, moisture content, inoculum volume on enzyme production was investigated. Also effect of supplementary carbon sources, nitrogen sources, metal ions and glutamine concentration was studied and their optimum conditions were determined. The organism produced high levels of enzyme at an optimum temperature of 28C and optimum pH 7.0, after 120h of incubation with 40% inoculum volume and 50% moisture content. Enhanced production was obtained on addition of 1% W/V D-glucose, peptone, magnesium sulphate and 1% W/W glutamine as supplements which showed an increase to four folds. Using this optimized media components and parameters; the L-Glutaminase activity 496U/gds was obtained.

This research aims to analyze the marketing of organic liquid fertilizer at the Indmira Company in meeting the needs of Kuantan Singingi oil palm farmers using the SWOT method. The type of research used in this research is qualitative research. The research was carried out at PT. Indmira selected 32 respondents and resource persons from Kuantan Singingi Regency. The data collection techniques used were interview techniques and questionnaires. The results of the research show that using SWOT analysis, Indmira's organic liquid fertilizer product has the opportunity to increase sales of liquid organic fertilizer through outreach and introduction, as well as building cooperation and using information technology regarding the product in the people of Kuantan Singingi Regency. The results of respondents' answers showed a good perception of organic liquid fertilizer. There are several factors that make this organic fertilizer have a good perception, one of which is that organic fertilizer has a long-term effect on the health of palm trees and the price is still affordable. Some farmers believe that organic liquid fertilizer is an environmentally friendly product. The results of the questionnaire explained that respondents were interested in using organic liquid fertilizer as an alternative or as a distraction from chemical fertilizers. This is because organic liquid fertilizer is a green product or environmentally friendly fertilizer. Organic fertilizer has a long-term effect on the health of palm trees, reduces environmental pollution and is more affordable.