Use and Coherence of Study Skills and Learning-Strategy Knowledge in Typically Developing Children and Children With Specific Learning Disabilities

Quand penser à l’existence d’un trouble spécifique du développement et des apprentissages associé au TDAH de l’enfant ?

The following Expert Panel White Paper should be considered a working document for reference purposes. This White Paper project was undertaken to address the Learning Disabilities Association of America (LDA) concerns regarding the Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act (IDEIA) of 2004 statutory and regulatory requirements for the identification of Specific Learning Disabilities (SLD), and the subsequent U. S. Department of Education Final Regulations and Commentary regarding implementation of IDEIA (34 CFR Parts 300 and 301; Federal Register, 2006).The purpose of the White Paper is to provide additional information for and guidance to the federal government, professional organizations, practitioners, and the public. The LDA is hopeful that this document will facilitate legal, regulatory, policy, and training decisions, and ultimately, service delivery to children with SLD.Subsequent to public release, the LDA sought to examine the arguments presented in IDEIA and the Final Regulations. The LDA Public Policy/Advocacy Committee solicited a number of professionals to examine the evidence that supported or refuted the information presented in the law and commentary. This LDA effort resulted in an LDA White Paper Survey of experts in the field, which in turn led to the production of this White Paper.This White Paper presents the expert professional opinions and empirical evidence regarding the identification of children with SLD and best practices in SLD service delivery. The preliminary findings of the LDA Expert Panel Survey (see Appendix A) and this White Paper represent the opinions and empirical evidence presented by 56 university professors and researchers, special education administrators, and special education lawyers with expertise in and public recognition for their work in SLD identification and intervention.All Expert Panel participants have published extensively in SLD, cognitive/neuropsychological assessment of high incidence disorders including SLD, and/or SLD educational intervention, in peer-reviewed journals, peer reviewed scholarly books, and/or argued legal cases in court proceedings. Individual curricula vitae are available upon request. However, it is important to recognize this was not a random sample of potential experts, but rather a survey of those individuals who have been recognized by their peers as SLD scholars with legitimate professional investments in the law and practice concerning SLD identification and intervention.This White Paper provides a summary of these Expert Panel White Paper Survey opinions, with relevant, but not exhaustive citations (provided as endnotes) that provide support for these conclusions. The five major conclusions drawn from these opinions and empirical evidence include the following:Maintain the SLD definition and strengthen statutory requirements in SLD identification procedures;Neither ability-achievement discrepancy analyses nor failure to respond to intervention (RTI) alone is sufficient for SLD identification;To meet SLD statutory and regulatory requirements, a third method approach that identifies a pattern of psychological processing strengths and deficits, and achievement deficits consistent with this pattern of processing deficits, makes the most empirical and clinical sense;An empirically validated RTI model could be used to prevent learning problems in children, but comprehensive evaluations should occur whenever necessary for SLD identification purposes, and children with SLD need individualized interventions based on specific learning needs, not merely more intense interventions designed for children in general education; andAssessment of cognitive and neuropsychological processes should be used not only for identification, but for intervention purposes as well, and these assessment-intervention relationships need further empirical investigation.

Specific learning disorders (SLDs) affect approximately 5% of school-age children. In France, genetic investigations of complex non-syndromic SLD cases include chromosomal microarray analysis and fragile X syndrome testing. However, the examples of genes being described in intellectual disability or autism spectrum disorder and also reported in patients with complex and severe SLDs are multiplying. International efforts using exome sequencing have identified monogenic diseases that explain severe SLDs in some instances. The aim of our study was to investigate the value of exome sequencing in children with SLDs without intellectual disability and autism spectrum disorder. We initiated a prospective study using exome sequencing in patients with well-documented, severe SLD. Analysis of 82 patients revealed pathogenic/likely pathogenic variants in 11 (13.4%) patients (ADNP, BRAF, CREBBP, KCNN2, KIF1A, RERE, SCN8A, SET, SMARCC2 (x2), TRIO). In addition, 38 variants of uncertain significance in candidate genes for severe neurodevelopmental disorders (NDDs) or in genes of unknown significance that could contribute to the phenotype were identified in 30 patients. The study of 82 patients does not provide sufficient statistical power to conclude that exome testing adds value over chromosomal microarray analysis, or to determine which patient profiles are more likely to benefit from genetic testing. Studies with larger patient numbers are needed to increase statistical power. This study confirms the involvement of NDD genes in milder phenotypes and suggests the potential of exome sequencing for diagnosing severe SLDs. Further research on larger samples is required to determine which SLDs are most likely to benefit from pangenomic explorations and to clarify the implication of candidate variants.

Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder–predominantly inattentive presentation (ADHD-I) and specific learning disorder (SLD) are commonly co-occurring conditions. Despite the considerable diagnostic overlap, the effect of SLD comorbidity on outcomes of behavioral interventions for ADHD-I remains critically understudied. The current study examines the effect of reading or math SLD comorbidity in 35 children with comorbid ADHD-I+SLD and 39 children with ADHD-I only following a behavioral treatment integrated across home and school (Child Life and Attention Skills [CLAS]). Pre- and posttreatment outcome measures included teacher-rated inattention, organizational deficits, and study skills and parent-rated inattention, organizational deficits, and homework problems. A similar pattern emerged across all teacher-rated measures: Children with ADHD-I and comorbid ADHD-I+SLD did not differ significantly at baseline, but between-group differences were evident following the CLAS intervention. Specifically, children with ADHD-I and comorbid ADHD-I+SLD improved on teacher-rated measures following the CLAS intervention, but children with ADHD-I only experienced greater improvement relative to those with a comorbid SLD. No significant interactions were observed on parent-rated measures—all children improved following the CLAS intervention on parent-rated measures, regardless of SLD status. The current results reveal that children with ADHD-I+SLD comorbidity benefit significantly from multimodal behavioral interventions, although improvements in the school setting are attenuated significantly. A treatment-resistant fraction of inattention was identified only in the SLD group, implying that this fraction is related to SLD and becomes apparent only when behavioral intervention for ADHD is administered.

This study focused on the relationship between both achievement level and diagnostic label and sociometric status and self-image of students in Dutch elementary education. In particular, differences between students with specific learning disabilities (SLD) and students with general learning disabilities (GLD) were studied, in regular as well as in special education. A total of 1,300 students participated, 861 in general and 439 in (separate) special education schools. Students with GLD were more often rejected and had a lower self-image than students with SLD. These results seemed to hold mainly for girls and for students with GLD in general education. No argument in favor of or against inclusive education can be advanced based on the results of this study, but the findings highlight the potential role of low achievement in peers' dislike of girls. Moreover, the results suggest the importance of investigating subgroups of students with LD in future research.

Purpose: The purpose of this study is to better understand the characteristics of the language-related skills of bilingual children with specific learning disorders (SLD). The aim is achieved by analyzing language-related skills in a sample of bilingual (Italian plus another language) and Italian monolingual children, with and without SLD.Patients and methods: A total of 72 minors aged between 9 and 11 were recruited and divided into four groups: 18 Italian monolingual children with SLD, 18 bilingual children with SLD, 18 Italian monolingual children without SLD, and 18 bilingual children without SLD. Each child underwent tests to evaluate different aspects of language skills: lexical and grammar, metalanguage and executive functions.Results: With regard to lexical and grammatical skills, the conditions of SLD and bilingualism both impact naming in terms of total number of errors for words with low frequency of use, while the condition of SLD has an effect on semantic errors for words with low frequency of use. The condition of bilingualism impacts on the total errors for words with high frequency of use and on circumlocution-type errors for words with low frequency of use. There were significant effects of bilingualism and SLD on the metalinguistic test for understanding implicit meaning, and an impact of SLD on phonological awareness was also found.Conclusion: The results suggest that both SLD and bilingualism have an effect on some lexical skills, in particular for words with low frequency of use. Both conditions, bilingualism and SLD, seem to impact on metalinguistic abilities that depend on lexical knowledge. These findings reinforce the importance of improving understanding of the neuropsychological profile of bilingual children with SLD.

Investigating quality of life and self-stigma in Hong Kong children with specific learning disabilities

Background: Specific learning disability (SLD) is known to cause a great amount of psychological and mental stress to the children and their parents. Objectives: To find out the prevalence of SLD among children in Gwalior and to find out the risk factors associated with SLD. Method: This cross-sectional study was conducted between 2016 and 2017 in two government and two private schools of Gwalior. A total of 800 students from the 3rd to 6th standard were included in the study. The details of every student were filled in a pro forma which included their academic performance. Based on this, last 10% of the low-performing students from each class were recruited and they were subjected to visual, hearing, IQ assessment, and NIMHANS index for SLD. Results: A total of 23 students were identified as having SLD, with a prevalence of 2.87%. The most common type was combined type (dyslexia and dyscalculia). The prevalence of arithmetic disability was found to be around 2.25%, reading disability was 2.5%, and that of writing disability was around 1.37%. The mean age of students diagnosed as SLD was 9.8. Among the learning-disabled students, 19 students (82%) were having only one sibling. SLD was diagnosed mostly in class IV students (p=0.023). Among SLD students, a history of prematurity was found in 11 students (48%), low birth weight in 13 students (57%), and head trauma in 13 students (57%) with SLD. Among SLD students, 7 were having attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). No students were identified as having ADHD in the remaining students and it was highly significant (p<0.001). Conclusion: The prevalence of SLD was 2.87%, with the most common type being combined type. The antenatal risk factors associated with SLD were prematurity, low birth weight, and a history of head trauma. The most common comorbid condition associated with SLD was attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder.

Purpose This study is aimed at investigating teachers' beliefs and their professionalism regarding the use of assistive technologies (AT) in teaching children with specific learning disabilities (SLD) in inclusive settings in Jordan. Materials and methods To achieve the study purpose, the researchers developed a scale, ‘teachers’ beliefs and professionalism', consisting of four subscales. A random sample of 157 SLD teachers participated in the study by completing the study scale and fifteen teachers were later interviewed. Results The SLD teachers' self-reported use of AT in curriculum of children with SLD was high. The teachers' perception of their professionalism in using assistive technologies in the teaching process sub-scale had the highest mean, whereas the availability of AT had the lowest. Results revealed a statistically significant correlation between teachers' beliefs and professionalism. The results also revealed that there were no significant differences between SLD teachers according to the teachers' gender or experience level, or the level of child disability. The results showed that there was only difference regarding the availability of AT sub-scale, pertaining to public school and private school and in favour of private schools. Conclusions Directions for further research and recommendations for policy and practice are discussed. IMPLICATIONS FOR REHABILITATION There is a vital need to investigate teachers’ professionalism and beliefs regarding applying AT for the children with SLD in inclusion settings, especially in developing countries. The availability of AT sub-scale had the lowest mean. The teachers’ perceptions of their professionalism in using AT in teaching had the highest mean. It is hoped that this study provide the decision-makers in the Ministry of Education (MoE) with valuable insights to develop the use of AT in teaching reading and writing for the children with SLD, as well as to develop their capacities to play a crucial role to develop a new appropriate training technique for the teaches to acquire the skills in order to enrich the using of AT to enhance the children abilities to develop their mental, social abilities in inclusive schools. Provide training for teachers and the teams who work with children with SLD to match particular technologies to specific needs to help the children with SLD to be more independent. Future studies should be done to get a complete picture about the role of AT in teaching children with SLD as perceived by teachers, principals, and parents. As well as to investigate the effectiveness of using AT in developing children skills with reading and writing difficulties to motivate schools in enhancing independence of the children. Further studies should also be conducted to compare the instructional practices in the field of AT used in Jordanian inclusive schools and schools applying international programmes to benefit from their instructional practices and their effective use of AT with children with SLD in inclusive schools.

Specific learning disorders (SLDs) are the most frequently diagnosed developmental disorders in childhood. Different neurocognitive patterns have been found in patients with overweight and obesity, but no data on childhood obesity and SLDs have been reported. To increase our understanding of the relationship between neuropsychological developmental and obesity, we assessed the prevalence of SLD in a pediatric population with obesity. We retrospectively included 380 children and adolescents with obesity. For all participants, auxological, metabolic, demographic features, relationship and social skills, anamnestic data on pregnancy and the perinatal period, stages of development and family medical history were reviewed. SLD was defined according to the DSM-5 criteria. A group of 101 controls of normal weight was included. The overall prevalence of SLD was 10.8%, and SLD was more prevalent in patients with obesity (p < 0.001), with male predominance (p = 0.01). SGA was associated with SLD (p = 0.02). Speech retardation (p < 0.001), limited relationships with peers (p < 0.001) and didactic support (p < 0.001) were noted in the SLD group compared to the group without SLD. A higher prevalence of family history of neuropsychiatric disorders was observed in the SLD group (p = 0.04). A higher fasting glucose level was detected in patients with obesity and SLD compared to subjects without SLD (p = 0.01). An association between obesity and SLD could not be excluded, and an overlap of pathogenic factors for both conditions should be considered.

Specific learning disorders (SLD) persist into adulthood. Persons with SLD frequently experience emotional and social difficulties. Following qualitative descriptions of individuals with SLD who experienced learning, as traumatic, we hypothesized that individuals reporting SLD would report higher levels of learning-based post-traumatic-stress-disorder (PTSD) symptoms. In Study 1 (N = 216), participants responded to questionnaires concerning SLD and learning-based PTSD. A separate sample (N = 43) was queried about adjustment disorder symptoms. Study 2 (N = 176) examined if current psychological distress was predicted by levels of learning-based PTSD at each developmental stage (elementary/high-school/post-high-school) and whether SLD links to current psychological distress. Finally, we assessed if SLD-psychological distress associations are mediated by cumulative levels of learning-based PTSD across these school periods. In Study 1 individuals reporting SLD displayed higher learning-based PTSD levels than those without SLD. SLD-PTSD associations held beyond adjustment disorder symptom levels. In Study 2, SLD was linked with psychological distress, mediated by accumulated learning-based PTSD symptom levels across school periods. These results suggest that in individuals with SLD, learning experiences may be associated with learning-based PTSD symptoms. Further, persons with SLD may be scarred by their traumatic learning experiences linking with current psychological distress, a link mediated by cumulative difficulties experienced over school years.

Context: Specific learning disabilities (SLDs) is a neurodevelopment disorder characterized by normal intelligence, and marked difficulty in academics and scholastic performance, thereby expressing gross discrepancy in the ability and achievement. Children with SLD have a typical cognitive profile. Like among the normal children, variance in the distribution of the intelligence is also observed among the children with SLD. Aims: The present study intends to categorize the children with SLD based on the intelligence quotient (IQ) and compare it with the nonlearning disabled (NLD) and further explore the cognitive profile associated with the respective category of SLD children. Settings and Design: In the present study, three groups of children in the age range of 8 to 12 years studying in 3 to 7th standard were selected as the sample for the study. Subjects and Methods: Seventy-seven children with SLD and 24 NLD children were tested for their IQ using the Wechsler's Intelligence Scale for children-IV. Seventy-seven children with SLD were categorized into two groups based on their Full-Scale IQ (FSIQ). The results were statistically analyzed and compared. Statistical Analysis: Independent sample t-test was used for the statistical analysis. Results: It was found that 58.4% of children with SLD had the FSIQ below 90 and 41.6% of children with SLD represented with the FSIQ as above 90. Both the groups of SLD children were compared with the NLD group. The significant difference is observed in the cognitive proficiency index (CPI) and general ability index (GAI). The SLD children of FSIQ below 90 had deficits in the domain of CPI and GAI and the SLD children with FSIQ above 90 had deficits in the area of CPI alone. The GAI and CPI of these children were further analyzed to reveal that the SLD children with FSIQ above 90 had difficulty in the area of working memory. Conclusion: The SLD may be represented as two different categories based on the cognitive profile. One category of children with SLD has their problems and difficulties confined to the domain of the working memory, while the other category of children has difficulty in the area of both GAI and CPI indicating difficulty in perceptual reasoning, working memory, and processing speed.

Adolescent Specific Learning Disabilities

Specific learning disorder (SLD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder that significantly affects children’s academic performance. This study aimed to investigate the expression levels of the MAP Kinase Interacting Serine/Threonine Kinase 1–2 (MNK1, MNK2), Synaptic Ras GTPase Activating Protein 1 (SYNGAP1) genes, and the long non-coding RNA Synaptic Ras GTPase Activating Protein 1-Anti Sense1 (SYNGAP1-AS1), which are believed to play a key role in neurodevelopmental pathways, in children with SLD. Understanding the role of these genes in synaptic plasticity and cognitive function may provide insights into the molecular mechanisms underlying SLD. This study included 38 children diagnosed with SLD and 35 healthy controls aged 6 to 16. RNA was isolated from blood samples, and gene expression levels were measured using quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR). The statistical analysis was conducted to compare the expression levels between the SLD and control groups and within SLD subgroups based on severity and sex. MNK1 and SYNGAP1 expression levels were significantly upregulated in the SLD group compared to the control group (8.33-fold and 16.52-fold increase, respectively; p < 0.001). lncSYNGAP1-AS1 showed a 26.58-fold increase, while MNK2 was downregulated by 2.2-fold, although these changes were not statistically significant. No significant differences were observed between sexes or between the severity subgroups of SLD.Conclusion: he upregulation of MNK1 and SYNGAP1 in children with SLD suggests their involvement in the neurodevelopmental pathways associated with cognitive processes such as learning and memory. These findings provide a foundation for future research into the molecular basis and potential therapeutic targets of SLD.What is known: • SYNGAP1 is a key regulator of synaptic plasticity and learning, primarily functioning through Ras signaling inhibition. Its deficiency impairs long-term potentiation (LTP) and is associated with neurodevelopmental disorders (NDDs) such as autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and intellectual disability. • The MAPK/ERK pathway plays a crucial role in learning and memory, and its dysregulation has been linked to several neurological conditions. MNK1/2 interacts with SYNGAP1 in synaptic signaling.What is new: • This study is the first to demonstrate significant upregulation of SYNGAP1 and MKNK1 in children with SLD. • Understanding the role of the MKNK-SYNGAP1 axis may guide the development of targeted therapies aimed at enhancing synaptic plasticity to improve learning and memory outcomes in children with SLD.

Self-efficacy and psychological well-being in a sample of Italian university students with and without Specific Learning Disorder