Urban–rural inequality and over-grading in Romanian schools

Unprecedented rates of urbanization are changing our understanding of the ways in which children build connections to the natural world, including the importance of educational settings in affecting this relationship. In addition to influencing human-nature connection, greenspace around school grounds has been associated with benefits to students’ cognitive function. Questions remain regarding the size of this benefit relative to other factors, and which features of greenspace are responsible for these effects. We conducted a large-scale correlative study subsampling elementary schools (n = 495) in ecologically, socially and economically diverse California. After controlling for common educational determinants (e.g., socio-economic status, race/ethnicity, student teacher ratio, and gender ratio) we found a significant, positive association between test scores and tree and shrub cover within 750 and 1000 m of urban schools. Tree and shrub cover was not associated with test scores in rural schools or five buffers closer to urban schools (10, 50, 100, 300, and 500 m). Two other greenspace variables (NDVI and agricultural area) were not associated with test performance at any of the analyzed buffer distances for rural or urban schools. Minority representation had the largest effect size on standardized test scores (8.1% difference in scores with 2SD difference in variable), followed by tree and shrub cover around urban schools, which had a large effect size (2.9–3.0% at 750 and 1000 m) with variance from minority representation and socioeconomic status (effect size 2.4%) included. Within our urban sample, average tree-cover schools performed 4.2% (3.9–4.4, and 95% CI) better in terms of standardized test scores than low tree-cover urban schools. Our findings support the conclusion that neighborhood-scale (750–1000 m) urban tree and shrub cover is associated with school performance, and indicate that this element of greenspace may be an important factor to consider when studying the cognitive impacts of the learning environment. These results support the design of experimental tests of tree planting interventions for educational benefits.

School principals were surveyed in rural and urban Nebraska schools to compare policies and procedures on school attendance, and to contrast the use of disciplinary procedures for attendance, violence and substance abuse. A survey was sent to a 50 percent random sample of Nebraska schools. Respondent school addresses in metropolitan statistical areas (MSA) areas were categorized as urban, and non-MSA respondents were classified as rural area schools. Of the 680 surveys mailed, 464 (68.2 percent) completed surveys were returned. Overall, 86.2 percent of respondents were from rural schools and 13.8 percent from urban schools. A list of disciplinary problems and procedures was reported for a first-time offense by rural and urban schools. Both an "occasional attendance problem" and a "chronic attendance problem" were most frequently addressed through parent contact in both urban and rural areas. For "fighting with another student," rural schools most commonly reported discipline by teacher, followed by discipline by principal and parent contact. In urban schools, discipline by principal was most common. For "using drugs other than alcohol or tobacco at school" in both areas, disciplinary procedures included parent contact and short-term suspension. A list of disciplinary problems and procedures was also reported for a second-time offense and third-time offense. For "fighting with another student," the most commonly reported procedure was discipline by principal and parent contact for a second-time offense, followed by short-term suspension and long-term suspension for a third-time offense. For "using drugs other than alcohol or tobacco at school," for a second time offense was long-term suspension and semester expulsion for a third-time offense. Principals were also asked in an open-response format, what program or procedures were currently in place to prevent violence in their school. Common responses were "conflict resolution training," followed by "the Boys Town social skills and behaviors model" and "a zero tolerance policy." School principals generally reported similar disciplinary actions for most disciplinary problems. For recurrent offenses and for serious problems, principals generally used tougher disciplinary procedures. Some of the discrepancies in disciplinary actions, however, suggest the need for consistent enforcement and communication of policies for both urban and rural schools.

The purpose of this study was to determine and compare the strategies, challenges faced, and experiences of science teachers and the scientific performance of students among rural and urban schools in Liliw, Laguna. This study aimed to answer the following questions What is the profile of science teachers in terms of Type of School where they teach, Age, Years in Teaching, Teaching Position, and Educational Attainment? What are the Strategies of Science teachers in rural and urban schools? What are the Challenges Faced by Science teachers in rural and urban schools? What are the Experiences of Science teachers in rural and urban schools? What is the level of performance of Grade 6 pupils in Science? Is there a significant difference between strategies, challenges faced, and experiences of Science teachers and the level of pupils performance in Science 6 in rural and urban schools? Is there a significant difference between the level of performance of pupils from rural and from urban schools? Is there a significant effect between the profile of the Science teachers and the level of performance of pupils in Science 6 from rural and urban schools? Is there a significant effect between the strategies of Science teachers and the level of performance of pupils in Science 6 from rural and urban schools? Is there a significant effect between the challenges faced by Science teachers and the level of performance of pupils in Science 6 from rural and urban schools? Is there a significant effect between the experiences of Science teachers and the level of performance of pupils in Science 6 from rural and urban schools? The respondents of the study were the forty-two (42) Science teachers and two hundred and fifty-two (252) students from the different urban and rural schools in the district of Liliw in Laguna. A descriptive survey method was employed in this study. The following were the significant findings of the study There is a significant difference between strategies, challenges faced, and experiences of Science teachers and the level of pupils performance in Science 6 in rural and urban schools There is a significant difference between the level of performance of pupils from rural and urban schools There is a significant effect between the profile of the Science teachers and the level of performance of pupils in Science 6 from rural and from urban schools There is a significant effect between the strategies of Science teachers and the level of performance of pupils in Science 6 from rural and from urban schools There is a significant effect between the challenges faced by Science teachers and the level of performance of pupils in Science 6 from rural and from urban schools and, There is a significant effect between the experiences of Science teachers and the level of performance of pupils in Science 6 from rural and urban schools. Based on the results gathered from the study, the following are being recommended: The strategies, challenges faced, and the experiences of teachers should be brought into consideration in improving the education system in the Philippines since they have an impact or influence on students academic performance, particularly in Science Discrimination between the performances of students from rural and urban is highly discouraged since there is no significant difference between where the school is located, whether rural or urban and, Implementation of such programs for teachers and students that are related to Science is recommended.

Existing literature has shown a disparity between the career aspirations of students from rural and urban schools. Unfortunately, no study has been conducted to investigate the differences in the career aspirations of senior secondary school students from urban and rural schools in Eswatini. Therefore, the purpose of the study was to compare the career aspirations of senior secondary school students from rural and urban schools in Eswatini. The target populations were Form 4 students, from eight schools in Eswatini: four rural and four urban schools. A total of 280 students were sampled. A questionnaire was developed and used for data collection. It was validated by three experts in the Department of Agricultural Education and Extension, one professional in the career guidance field, and one career and guidance teacher. Data were analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistics. Findings revealed that the students from both rural and urban schools had their career inspiration to become medical doctors. However, the career aspirations of the students from rural schools were higher than those from urban schools in a few areas. Thus, the study recommends that career guidance and counseling officials should assist students from urban schools in careers where they have low aspirations. Keywords: career aspirations, comparative analysis, Form 4 students, rural school, sources of aspiration, urban school

Objective: Research has shown that rear-seated children are 36 to 40 percent safer than front-seated children. Because of the substantial differences in traffic safety culture that appear to exist in rural areas and the limited research regarding seat placement and rurality, this study seeks to contribute to the safety literature by determining at what rate children are riding in the front seat and whether differences exist between rural and urban areas in regards to child front seat placement. Methods: Current child placement frequencies within vehicles were ascertained through direct observations of morning child drop-offs at randomly selected urban and rural elementary schools in eastern North Dakota during November and December of 2009, with a focus on children aged 12 or younger. Two observers wearing orange safety vests and carrying observation sheets were stationed at each elementary school a minimum of 45 min prior to each school's designated start time. Based on the vehicles that entered the school's parking lot/drop-off circle and from which a minimum of one child exited, observers were instructed to record vehicle type, presence of children in the front seat appearing to be younger than 13 years old, availability of room in the back seat, and placement of other children in the vehicle. Results: During November and December of 2009 a total of 537 vehicles were observed at urban schools and 150 vehicles were observed at rural schools. Of the 537 vehicles observed at urban schools, 28.7 percent had children seated in the front seat, whereas 41.3 percent of the 150 vehicles observed at rural schools had front-seated children. Significant urban/rural differences exist in child seat placement, with vehicles in rural areas much more likely to be carrying front-seated children than vehicles in urban areas. Conclusions: Based on a sample of vehicles observed at urban and rural elementary schools in North Dakota, the results of this study indicate that there are significant rural/urban differences in child seat placement.

BackgroundStudies in developed countries have reported that the prevalence of asthma and rhinitis is higher in urban areas than in rural areas, and this phenomenon is associated with urbanization and changing indoor microbiome exposure. Developing countries such as China have experienced rapid urbanization in past years, but no study has investigated microbiome exposure and urban-rural health effects in these countries.MethodsNine high schools from urban and rural areas were randomly selected in Shanxi Province, China, and classroom vacuum dust was collected for shotgun metagenomic sequencing. A self-administered questionnaire was collected from 1332 students for personal information and health data. Three-level logistic regression was performed between microbial richness/abundance/functional pathways and the occurrence of asthma and rhinitis symptoms.ResultsConsistent with developed countries, the prevalence of wheeze and rhinitis was higher in urban areas than in rural areas (p < 0.05). Metagenomic profiling revealed 8302 bacterial, 395 archaeal, 744 fungal, 524 protist and 1103 viral species in classroom dust. Actinobacteria (mean relative abundance 49.7%), Gammaproteobacteria (18.4%) and Alphaproteobacteria (10.0%) were the most abundant bacterial classes. The overall microbiome composition was significantly different between urban and rural schools (p = 0.001, Adonis). Species from Betaproteobactera, Gammaproteobacteria and Bacilli were enriched in urban schools, and species from Actinobacteria and Cyanobacteria were enriched in rural schools. Potential pathogens were present in higher abundance in urban schools than in rural schools (p < 0.05). Pseudoalteromonas, Neospora caninum and Microbacterium foliorum were positively associated with the occurrence of wheeze, rhinitis and rhinoconjunctivitis, and Brachybacterium was protectively (negatively) associated with rhinitis (p < 0.01). The abundance of human endocrine and metabolic disease pathways was positively associated with rhinitis (p = 0.008), and butyrate and propionate metabolic genes and pathways were significantly enriched in rural schools (p < 0.005), in line with previous findings that these short-chain fatty acids protect against inflammatory diseases in the human gut.ConclusionsWe conducted the first indoor microbiome survey in urban/rural environments with shotgun metagenomics, and the results revealed high-resolution microbial taxonomic and functional profiling and potential health effects.2wRPURVCNzispD2jVrrnAmVideo abstract

Background: The implementation of the School Health Program (SHP) is core to the realization of the goal of National Policy on Education. Despite the formulation and adoption of the National School Health Policy (NSHPo) in Nigeria in 2006, no study has been conducted to evaluate the quality of its implementation. This study was carried out to appraise the quality of implementation of the program in public primary schools in rural and urban Local Government Areas (LGAs) of Oyo State, Nigeria. Methodology: The study utilized a comparative cross-sectional design. A two-stage sampling technique was used to select 49 public primary schools; 26 rural and 23 urban, from two selected LGAs. Observational checklist (OC) was used to assess the SHP in the selected rural and urban schools from the LGAs. The checklist comprised of 4 sections; the school administrative information and implementation items for each of the three main components of the SHP as listed below i.e. School Health Services (SHS), School Health Education (SHE) and Healthful School Environment (HSE). The overall quality of implementation was measured by assessing the availability, appropriateness and functionality of basic health, sanitation and education facilities on a 79-point scale (SHS-21, SHE-10, HSE-48). Scores of <40%, 40-49% and ≥50% were categorized as poor, fair and good quality of implementation of the SHP respectively. Data were analyzed using SPSS version 22. Results: All the schools in both the urban and rural public primary schools had functional Parent Teacher Association. Neither the rural nor the urban public primary schools had trained first aiders, school health assistants or school health nurses. Even though most (87.8%) of the schools had first aid boxes (rural-100% versus urban-73.9%), 56.5% and 23.1% of the first aid boxes in the urban and rural public schools contained nothing. Only 8.7% of the urban schools had a sick bay. None of the public primary schools in both the rural and urban locations had major communicable health problems, HIV/AIDS education and use and abuse of drugs in their health instruction curriculum. Majority of the schools in the rural locations (88.5%) had sources of water supply compared with 10 (43.5%) of the schools in urban LGAs. Some (38.8%) of the schools had refuse bins located either on the corridors or at the corners of the classrooms. Higher proportions of schools in the urban areas (27.8%) had dustbins compared with (20.7%) of the rural schools. Overall, (59.2%) schools had poor quality of implementation of the SHP (rural-65.4% versus urban- 52.2%). Conclusion: The study revealed poor quality of implementation of the school health program in the selected rural and urban public primary schools in Oyo State as various essential equipment/items for effective school service delivery were either inadequate or lacking. There is a need for concerted efforts to improve/upgrade the standard of the program in both rural and urban public primary schools in the State.

To ensure inclusive, equitable quality education, and encourage educational opportunities for lifelong learning worldwide; the United Nations set sustainable development goals (SDG) to achieve quality education. Thus, using SDG 4 quality education and system theory, this research seeks to identify the effects of educational management on quality education in rural and urban primary schools in Ghana. Moreover, the mediating role of internet facilities in educational management and quality education relationhsip has been discussed. Thus, 745 urban and 471 rural head teachers and teachers from Ghana participated in an online survey. The data was compiled and executed by structural equation model using SPSS-AMOS. The result reveals that educational management has a positive effect on quality education in urban and rural schools. In addition, urban schools have more quality education than rural schools. Although internet facilities have a positive effect on quality education their absence weakens the quality of education in urban and rural schools. Moreover, it is recommended that the Ministry of Education should arrange professional training for supervisors and head teachers to boost their monitoring and supervision strategies. Furthermore, Parents Teacher Associations can provide funding to support the monitoring and supervision activities to achieve success. Lastly, quality internet facilities should be built with limited charges in rural and urban schools.

Αim: To investigate whether and to what extent students attending small rural primary schools are "disadvantaged" compared to students attending urban schools as well as what are the differences in their performance and consistency in their attendance in the 1st grade of secondary school (gymnasium).&#x0D; Methodology: we chose for our research the quantitative research approach, to study a large number of cases and analyze statistically the research data. More specifically, the choice of the sample which included all the students who studied in the secondary schools of the Prefecture of Arta and specifically in the 1st grade, after collecting their report cards , was considered more reliable. The sample of the research, therefore, consists of 364 students who used to study during the school year 2012-2013 in the prefecture of Arta in the 1st grade of secondary school (gymnasium) and was made by simple random sampling.&#x0D; Results: As evidenced by the research findings, students who attended urban primary schools, achieve better performance in the first class of secondary school. In particular their average grade of achievement is higher especially in Mathematics and Modern Greek Language &amp; Literature where they achieve also higher grades. However, as far as Science classes are concerned, no difference in grades is observed. Finally, regarding the continuous attendance of students, those who attended small primary schools had more absences during the school year.&#x0D; Conclusion: The results of the research show a number of differences in the performance of students who have previously attended urban and rural primary schools, with those of urban schools being superior. However, the factors that constitute an obstacle to the proper and smooth operation of a rural school are numerous and also, the advantages of a rural school are difficult to be measured quantitatively.

Aims: To comparatively investigate factors affecting computer literacy in urban and rural primary schools in Nigeria. Study design: This study was a descriptive survey. Place and Duration of Study: Port Harcourt and Obiakpor (representing urban areas), and Asari-Toru and Gokana (representing rural areas) of Rivers State, Nigeria; between March and June 2011. Methodology: A total of 480 primary school teachers were drawn from the four Local Government Areas. An eighteen-item questionnaire, ‘Computer Literacy Inventory’ (CLI) was developed by the researcher and used for data collection. CLI was distributed and collected at teachers’ workshop organized by the State Ministry of Education. Analysis was through simple tables of frequency counts and percentages Results: Out of 240 respondents from rural and urban areas respectively, only 80(33%) rural respondents indicated that there are computers in their schools while 160(67%) were on the contrary, but all the 240(100%) urban respondents admitted that there are computers in the urban schools. The 80(33%) rural respondents that have computers in their schools responded to issues on teachers’ accessibility to computers as never (0(0%) rarely (16(20%), seldom (40(50%) and often (24(30%), always (0). Similarly, their urban colleagues responded: never (16(7%), rarely (63(26%), seldom (96(40%), often (65(27%), and always (0(0%). 184(77%) urban teachers affirmed their possession of computer skills and only 56(23%) did not; while in the rural schools only 40(17%) said they have the skill and the rest 200(83%) admitted that they lack the skill. Rural respondents indicated total absence of computer practical sessions while only 56(23%) urban teachers affirmed to practical computer lessons. The teaching strategy is mostly lecture-based as attested by 240(100%) rural teachers and 184(77%) urban counterparts. On the issue of learning environment, every Computer Science class in rural schools takes place in the classroom 240(100%) and never in any designated equipped room called Computer Lab. This case is only slightly different in urban areas because 32(13%) use computer lab while the majority, 208(87%), do not. Concerning socio-economic background of the class, only 39(16%) rural pupils come from rich homes while majority of them 88(37%) and 113(47%) come from poor and very poor families respectively, while majority (136(57%) of urban pupils belong to rich families with others coming from poor 72(30%) and very poor 32(13%) homes. Conclusion: Challenges retarding computer literacy in Nigerian Primary schools, particularly in the rural areas, are enormous. This reveals the need for urgent interventions from the government and public spirited organizations and individuals. Government should not pay lip service to ICT-policies to afford the teeming population of Nigerian children the opportunity to meet up with rest of the world.

Background: Dental caries is painful, expensive to treat and can harm nutrition and overall health. Good oral hygiene, regular utilization of dental health facilities, dietary habits and knowledge of determinants of dental caries play important role in the prevalence of dental caries among school children. Tooth loss, sequelae to untreated dental caries is higher among urban school children than their rural counterparts. Aim: To compare and determine the oral health status and investigate dental clinic attendance and knowledge of students in rural and urban secondary schools in Lagos on the aetiology of dental caries. Methods: Using stratified and proportionate to size sampling techniques, a random sample of 598 students aged 12-26years from rural and urban local government areas were examined for dental caries and gingivitis. Questionnaires were administered to elicit information on frequency of consumption of refined sugar, parents' educational status, knowledge of dental caries aetiology and dental clinic attendance. The decayed, missing and filled tooth index (DMFT) was measured according to the WHO caries diagnostic criteria for epidemiological studies and the clinical oral hygiene status measured with the gingival index (GI) of Loe and Silness, Plague index and the Simplified Oral Hygiene Index. Results: There was a statistically significant difference between urban and rural students in caries experience in permanent teeth (mean DMFT = 0.26 in urban areas; 0.11 in rural areas), More of the parents of students in the urban schools are educated than those in rural schools. The decayed (D) and missing (M) components were higher in the rural area, indicating a high level of restorative treatment need among the students in rural area. The urban participants had better oral hygiene and the gingival index was higher among rural students. Dental clinic attendance was higher among the urban participants than the rural participants. Conclusion: The students in urban secondary schools had better oral health status and make use of dental facilities more than their rural counterparts. The knowledge of aetiology of dental caries is poor among both the rural and urban school students.

The paper has compared the quality of compulsory education of rural schools in West China with the counties, cities, and provincial capitals, and find out that there is a big gap between the quality of West rural and urban compulsory education, the quality of some grades of the rural primary schools has not achieved the basic requirement of the curriculum standards, the gap between the quality of junior high schools in rural and urban areas is relatively severe. The mean score and qualified rate in the subjects of Chinese, mathematics and English of West rural junior high students are distinctly lower than that of the urban and county schools. The main factor that leads to the bigger discrepancy between the urban and rural education quality mainly lies in the difference in the teaching force. Compared with urban schools, the teachers in rural schools is insufficient and poorly-trained, with less access to teachers’ professional development and support. The teaching quality in the West rural schools should be paid attention and improved in light of the rationale of educational equity.

The study sought to establish and compare the views of rural and urban primary school pupils on homework in Zimbabwe, using six purposively sampled Masvingo rural and urban primary schools. The inquiry employed a qualitative methodology in which data were gathered through semi-structured personal interviews and document analysis. A sample of thirty rural and thirty urban Grade Five pupils were interviewed. Forty-five homework exercise books were analyzed. The investigation established that while in both rural and urban schools, there are some pupils who like homework while others dislike it for various reasons; there are more pupils in urban areas who view homework in a positive light than those in rural schools. The paper unearthed home and school factors as the causes of rural and urban pupils’ different views on homework. The paper makes several recommendations. Firstly, the government should endeavour to narrow the gap between the socio-economic statuses of the rural and urban populace in Zimbabwe as it is a major contributor to pupils’ different views on homework. The paper further recommends that rural schools be improved in terms of the quality of teachers and teaching-learning resources. Also, parents in both settings need to be encouraged to take an interest in their children’s homework. Moreover, teachers from both rural and urban schools need to take homework more seriously as their attitudes to homework influence pupils’ views on it. Key words: Academic achievement, homework, Zimbabwe, rural, urban, education.

Protocol for a Systematic Review: Teach For America (TFA) for Improving Math, Language Arts, and Science Achievement of Primary and Secondary Students in the United States: A Systematic Review

This study aimed to explore the gap regarding technology integration between urban and rural schools based on theWill Skill Tool model. This study was guided by three main questions: 1) Is there any significant difference in termsof technology availability between rural and urban elementary schools?; 2) Is there any significant difference interms of teachers’ attitudes, competence, levels and experiences in technology integration between rural and urbanelementary schools?; 3) Is there any significant difference in terms of students’ attitudes, competence andexperiences in technology integration between rural and urban elementary schools? This was a survey study with 275teachers and 293 students as participants in southern Taiwan. Half of the participants came from regular urbanschools and the other half were from disadvantaged rural schools. T-tests and Chi-Square tests were done to examinedifferences. The results showed that there was a significant difference in technology availability between rural andurban schools, including the number of interactive whiteboards, desktops in labs, notebooks, netbooks, and tabletcomputers. There was also a difference in teacher overall high-tech integration level between rural and urban schools.Urban teachers reached the level of “familiarity and confidence” but rural teachers only stayed at the level of“understanding and application of the process.” Teachers’ experience, purpose and difficulty in technologyintegration between rural and urban schools were also slightly different. In addition, there was a difference instudents’ experience and preference in using technology to learn, especially using interactive whiteboards in learning.