Urban and Peri-urban Agriculture in Phnom Penh, Cambodia: Challenges and Opportunities

The majority of the global population lives in cities. In the developing world, a three-fold challenge of population growth, urbanization, and urban food insecurity is posing challenges for cities. Urban agriculture has received increasing attention as one strategy to help cope with this. Using the annual statistical data of the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry, and Fisheries, this paper reported on trends in urban agriculture (rice, vegetables, cattle, swine, and poultry) in Phnom Penh, Cambodia since 1993. At least 125 square kilometers (~20%) of the municipal area of Phnom Penh is used in agriculture, with nearly 300,000 swine, cattle, and poultry. It is the sixth largest industry in the city and the most important secondary economic activity. Yield data for rice and vegetables are not significantly different between Phnom Penh and the Cambodian average. Cattle, swine, and poultry populations have been declining in Phnom Penh since 1993 but all increased in 2011. Between 1993 and 2011, vegetable production and area cultivated have decreased, whereas rice production has increased. To maximize the multifunctional benefits of urban agriculture in Phnom Penh, further research is needed to understand its importance at the household level and to ensure that it is being practiced effectively and sustainably.

Cost benefit analysis in 20 each urban and periurban dairy farms nearby Navsari city of Gujarat, India were studied. The required information from selected farms was collected through personal interview. The collected and derived data were subject to statistics as per standard technique in Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) software. Total fixed cost in urban and peri urban area was Rs. 2.27±0.36 and 2.05±0.33 lakh, respectively. Among total cost, fixed cost was 11.42%, further; it was nonsignificant among urban and peri-urban farms. Total variable cost was looked higher in urban farms i.e. Rs.18.97±2.47 and 14.50±2.33 in urban and periurban farms, respectively, however, it was nonsignificant between two areas. The proportion of variable cost was major (88.58%) among total cost. Among total cost feed-fodder cost was highest i.e. 70.10% followed by labour cost i.e. 17.13%. Gross total income was found higher in urban farms but it was nonsignificant between two regions. Pooled gross total income was Rs. 23.05 lakh. Average total income from sale of milk was Rs. 21.70 lakh (92.72%). Sale of animals (4.31%) and sale of dung (2.98%) was also having some contribution in return. The average net profit in urban farms was found nonsignificant higher i.e. Rs. 5.52 and 3.48 lakh, in urban and peri urban farms, respectively. When farms was compared based on net return per adult unit the urban farms was significantly more profitable (US$ 172 v/s 136). The net profit per litre of milk was Rs. 9.20 and 6.80 in urban and periurban farms, respectively. The overall benefit cost ratio was found 1:1.20. It was also higher in urban area. Thus, it can be concluded that urban and periurban dairy farms are profitable and viable enterprise.

Zimbabwe is becoming increasingly urbanized, and with this accelerating process comes a host of socio-economic challenges. Rapid urbanization process has resulted in increase urban food insecurity and malnutrition, especially on the side of tandem increase in urban poverty. Urban poverty and food shortage are taking root in Zimbabwe, as a result increased food production and access becomes critical to achieving major nutritional improvement and addressing food insecurity. In the face of urban food shortages, the present paradigm of rural food production cannot meet the challenges of the new millennium. It is hardly surprising that increasing umbers of urbanites are looking to grow their own food, if only to supplement their family food needs. Food is one of the basic needs and urban agriculture, both legal and illegal, has grown as a consequence of the difficult economic climate. Many urban households lack adequate amounts of foods that are rich in the nutrients needed for health and a productive life. It is against this background of increasing urban poverty that this discussion puts forward some suggestions for promoting urban agriculture. Urban agriculture has diverse economic, social and ecological functions and can be valued as one of the agricultural sectors having enormous potential to contribute to food security in Zimbabwe. In this discussion the role of urban agriculture in improving nutrition and food security is highlighted. Urban areas are becoming more 'modern' in their patterns of consumption than in their patterns of production, and there is a danger that the urban poor will become more and more marginalized while, at the other extreme, a small increasingly wealthy elite develops. The demand for food due to increased urbanization is predicted to grow faster than production resulting in a growing food deficit and insecurity in urban areas. Strategies which foster gender equality in urban food production will impact positively on food production, which may translate into expanded food production base to meet the needs of the growing urban dwellers, who are failing to make ends meet. This means participation of women in urban agriculture on the understanding that they are custodians of food production in many urban communities is recommended. However, challenges associated with urban agriculture need to be addressed to avoid land degradation and pollution in urban areas. Therefore, urban agriculture should be considered as a normal component of agriculture system and urban development, which has the capacity to improve nutrition and food security, as it lends itself to the majority of the urban poor. Greater and more sustained food production from urban agriculture will increase the potential access of the urban household to an adequate diet. It is envisaged that urban agriculture will be the new approach to satisfying urban food demands, however best provided incentives to urban farmers are credited by formulating policy fair to urban food producers. In the face of this bleak situation, major efforts are required to promote urban agriculture in addressing the nutritional needs and the perpetual food insecurity challenges in urban areas of Zimbabwe. On the other hand, given the economic, social and ecological advantages of urban farming it is arguably deserves even greater attention than before.

There is growing evidence of urban poverty in and around cities in sub-Saharan Africa in the form of food and nutrition insecurity. Although many studies have been done across sub-Saharan Africa on urban agriculture, food and nutrition insecurity, little is known about the association of urban agriculture to household food and nutrition insecurity along the urban–rural continuum, especially in West African cities. Therefore, a survey was carried out between August and September 2014 in and around Ouagadougou (Burkina Faso), using a transect approach to guide the data collection. The purpose of this study was to understand the dynamics of urban, periurban and rural agriculture and its association with household food and nutrition insecurity. A total of 240 households participated in the survey. From these households, data were collected on 179 women of reproductive age (15–49 yr) and 133 children under the age of 5 yr to compute Women's Dietary Diversity Scores (WDDS) and other anthropometric indices. The results of this study provide a general picture of crop production which is inclined to subsistence and income generation. Households in rural and periurban areas were more engaged in crop and livestock production compared with their urban area counterparts. Households in periurban areas had the highest relative proportion (54%) of food insecurity (household food insecurity access scale (HFIAS) > 11), compared with urban areas (39%) and rural areas (45%). At the same time the periurban households had the highest relative proportion of stunting and wasting prevalence compared with urban and rural households. Households in the rural areas had the highest dietary diversity (WDDS ≥ 6), compared with periurban and urban households. Households keeping livestock significantly experienced less wasting (weight-for-height index (WHZ)) (coef = −0.15;P= 0.008) by a factor of 0.15, and overweight (body mass index (BMI)-for-age (BAZ)) (coef = −0.12;P= 0.015) by a factor of 0.12 compared with households not doing livestock keeping. Households involved in crop production significantly experienced more food insecurity, HFIAS (coef. = 2.55;P= 0.042) by a factor of 2.55 compared with households without crop production. The complexity of periurban areas coupled with the scourge of food and nutrition insecurity will require more periurban agriculture and food policy consideration.

Food security is becoming an increasingly relevant topic in the Global North, especially in urban areas. Because such areas do not always have good access to nutritionally adequate food, the question of how to supply them is an urgent priority in order to maintain a healthy population. Urban and peri-urban agriculture, as sources of local fresh food, could play an important role. Whereas some scholars do not differentiate between peri-urban and urban agriculture, seeing them as a single entity, our hypothesis is that they are distinct, and that this has important consequences for food security and other issues. This has knock-on effects for food system planning and has not yet been appropriately analysed. The objectives of this study are to provide a systematic understanding of urban and peri-urban agriculture in the Global North, showing their similarities and differences, and to analyse their impact on urban food security. To this end, an extensive literature review was conducted, resulting in the identification and comparison of their spatial, ecological and socio-economic characteristics. The findings are discussed in terms of their impact on food security in relation to the four levels of the food system: food production, processing, distribution and consumption. The results show that urban and peri-urban agriculture in the Global North indeed differ in most of their characteristics and consequently also in their ability to meet the food needs of urban inhabitants. While urban agriculture still meets food needs mainly at the household level, peri-urban agriculture can provide larger quantities and has broader distribution pathways, giving it a separate status in terms of food security. Nevertheless, both possess (unused) potential, making them valuable for urban food planning, and both face similar threats regarding urbanisation pressures, necessitating adequate planning measures.

In Ethiopia, there is an urge to enhance milk production where urban and peri-urban farms play important role. Therefore, the role of such production system in Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions should be known. This study was conducted with the objective of estimating the carbon footprint (CF) of milk within Mekelle milkshed, Ethiopia. 50 urban and 42 peri-urban dairy farms were selected randomly and both primary and secondary data was collected. Lifecycle Assessment (LCA) approach was employed to quantify GHG emissions using cradle to- farm gate approach. The mean GHG emissions per cattle unit (000 kg CO2-e y-1) were 2.84 ± 1.23 and 3.19 ± 1.99 for peri-urban and urban farms, respectively. The share of enteric fermentation was 75.5% and 73.6% for peri-urban and urban farms, respectively. Milk contributed for 88.5% and 90.8% to the economic value of peri-urban and urban farms, respectively. Overall, the CF of milk production in urban and peri-urban farms was 2.2 kg CO2-e/kg and 3.2 kg CO2-e/kg without economic allocation, and 2.0 kg CO2-e/kg and 2.8 kg CO2-e/kg with economic allocation. In order to reduce GHG emission intensity from dairy farms it is important to adopt climate smart dairy practices.

FOOD FOR THE CITIES: URBAN AGRICULTURE IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

Objective – This study aims to analyze the contribution of urban and peri-urban agriculture in mitigating food insecurity in Brazil, considering the relevance of the National Program for Urban and Peri-urban Agriculture (2018) and the recent Law No. 14,935/2024. The research seeks to map and analyze academic studies on the subject, highlighting the main contributions of community gardens to sustainable development. Methodology – The research adopted a qualitative state-of-the-art approach, analyzing theses and dissertations available in the Brazilian Digital Library of Theses and Dissertations (BDTD) published between 2020 and 2024. Seven studies were identified and analyzed, considering their contributions to urban and community agriculture. Originality/relevance – The study fills a gap by linking urban agriculture to the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), highlighting its role in poverty eradication (SDG 2), education promotion (SDG 4), economic growth (SDG 8), and sustainable cities (SDG 11). Additionally, it proposes strategies to strengthen the implementation of public policies focused on urban agriculture. Results – The analysis revealed that community gardens have great potential to contribute to food and nutritional security while generating jobs and income. However, challenges were identified, such as the need for more effective public policies, incentives for local consumption, and strengthening of community initiatives. The research suggests that state and municipal governments without specific legislation on urban agriculture develop local policies aligned with national legislation. Theoretical/methodological contributions – The study contributes to the debate on food security and sustainable development by consolidating knowledge on urban agriculture from recent academic literature. It also proposes that future research analyze the contributions of urban agriculture to vulnerable populations registered in the Federal Government's Unified Registry. Social and environmental contributions – The research reinforces the importance of urban agriculture as a strategy for social and economic inclusion, promoting environmental sustainability and agroecological education. Encouraging community gardens and policies supporting local consumption can strengthen food supply networks and reduce food insecurity in urban centers.

To achieve the second goal of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), which is about ending hunger, it is suggested that towns and cities need to foster and promote urban and peri-urban agriculture (UPA). UPA is also recognized as one of the strategies that can be adopted to address contemporary urban challenges, such as food insecurity, climate change as well as urban poverty. Most intermediate and secondary cities such as Jinja however, lack coherent plans to foster urban and peri-urban agriculture (UPA). The purpose of this study is to assess and explicate the practice and dynamics of urban and peri-urban agriculture (UPA) in Jinja city in view of the city’s recent experience as well as changing land use and development patterns. To achieve the stated objectives of the study, an eclectic research methodology comprising of both quantitative and qualitative approaches was used. The study also used both questionnaires and face-to-face interviews as data collection methods. The questionnaire survey targeted 129 household heads from the Northern and Southern Jinja city divisions. Respondents for the key informants’ face-to-face interviews were selected using purposive sampling while those for the questionnaires were randomly selected. Results show a varied and diverse practice of urban and peri-urban agriculture in Jinja city. The city’s UPA sector is dominated and characterized by poultry farming, crop farming (both food and cash crops), livestock farming (goat/sheep rearing, cattle rearing/zero grazing, rabbit rearing and pig rearing), horticulture/vegetables, fish farming, mushroom growing and agro-forestry (fruit/timber growing). Findings further revealed that, 38.1% of the HHs in Jinja city used their own land to participate agriculture, 21.6% used backyards/house compounds and 21.6% hired land to engage in farming. The rest, 3.1% used borrowed land. In addition, 50.9% of the urban farmers used less than an acre to farm while 0.9% had more than 4 acres. Only 33.3% of the HHs had adequate food for the family needs throughout the year due to factors such as poor harvest and prolonged droughts caused by erratic rainfall. To foster urban and peri-urban agriculture (UPA) in Jinja city, it is suggested that the city authorities adopt strategies to establish a functional demonstration farm where citizens could learn new farming methods, provide cheap credit to urban farmers, strengthen collaboration with the National Animal Genetic Resource Centre (NAGRC) in Njeru town, foster irrigation-related programmes, promote greenhouse farming, promote school gardens in the city, build local capacity for the newly introduced Parish Development Model (PDM) farming groups, carry out public awareness campaigns targeting the youth to embrace urban agriculture, support agro-processing and value addition mechanisms for urban agriculture as well as review the current city zoning laws and building codes to accommodate backyard and roof-top gardening.

Urban Agriculture and Operational Mosquito Larvae Control:Mitigating Malaria Risk in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania

Despite the perceived white-collar and industry-based formal employment gravity of urban areas of developing countries, poverty and food insecurity persists. Therefore, urban agriculture, a predominantly rural economic activity, emerges as a lucrative livelihood strategy used to curb urban food insecurity. We assessed the contributions of urban agriculture to household food security and income in Cold Stream, a low income residential area in Chinhoyi town in Zimbabwe. Weadministered 20 questionnaires to a convenient sample of urban farmers, interviewed five purposively sampled informants from key institutions and carried out three temporally spaced fieldworks. The results clearly show that urban agriculture is a prominent livelihood of the poor unemployed majority (53%) who dominate the economic category. Key informants interviews indicated that although local non-governmental organisations boost urban agriculture by providing farm inputs and technical advice free of charge, there is no government support this activity. Furthermore, results from questionnaires show that yields as well as income from their sales is used primarily for acquiring basic necessities rather than for luxury thereby confirming that the farmers are poor. All urban farmers (100%) consume their farm produce indicating that urban agriculture enhances food security. Moreover, a majority (80%) overwhelmingly concurred that urban farming makes food cheaper hence improves food accessibility, which is an important pillar of food security. Additionally, a majority (60%) earn significant income from selling farm produce, of which 84% sale to informal markets while remaining minority 16% to the formal markets. Notably, about half the sample (48%) also concurred that urban agriculture reduce food insecurity even in their rural homes where they also remit some of their farm produce. However, there are challenges negatively affecting urban agriculture. Some of the challenges include lack of credit lines for inputs and unfavourable policy arrangements that classifies urban agriculture as illegal activity.

Urban and peri-urban agriculture (UPA) has become a key component of the survival strategies of poorer sections of the population while also providing a significant contribution to the urban fresh food supply chain. The positive impacts of this industry include improved nutrition and health, an improved environment for living, increased entrepreneurship and poverty alleviation. Urban agriculture is one of the most effectual concepts of sustainable development. It improves the quality of urban environment through greening and reduction in pollution. In many developed and also in some developing countries, local authorities start to recognize the role of urban agriculture for local economic development, enhancing urban food security and offering recreational services to urban citizens. In a developing country like Bangladesh, where a huge number of people face food insecurity, practice of urban and peri-urban agriculture can play a vital role in supplying fresh foods. Urban planners in developing countries should pay more attention to peri-urban agricultural practices which could assist in improving urban environment, generating employment and reducing future food insecurity. The aim of the study is to determine the suitability of the study area for urban and peri-urban agriculture in DMDP area. As it is not possible to conduct the study for the whole DMDP area within a limited time, the study has narrowed down to Gazipur, Kaliganj, Rupganj and Narayanganj Upazilas. Journal of Bangladesh Institute of Planners Vol. 5, Dec 2012, pp. 69-77

The increasing impact due to urban population’s food supply causes a series of negative externalities related to food production, transformation and transportation. FAO and other institutions are trying to integrate traditional models of food supply with alternative ones like Urban and Peri-Urban Agriculture (UPA). Defining the drivers that motivate the participation in different types of UPA could be useful to plan more participated and effective UPA development policies. Barcelona (Spain) hosts a number of cases representing different declinations that UPA can assume. This work aims at describing the differences in terms of motivations to enter the various typologies of Urban Agriculture (UA) in Barcelona. Data were collected through semi-structured interviews to 4 groups of users representing 3 of the most widespread models of UA initiatives in Barcelona (Allotment Gardens, Community Gardens, Pla Buits.)The results showed that participation in UA is mainly motivated by relational aspects and knowledge exchange and differences exist among the various UA models. Political reasons are mostly influencing the Community Gardeners while Pla Buits users’ mains motivations are related to socialising and Allotment gardeners are mainly motivated by environmental aspects. Differences in the participants’ demographic characteristics also emerged. Better targeted public policies contents and communication strategies for UPA development can thus be derived by the results obtained; to this end, recommendations have been provided. Further research should broaden the range of case studies and the sample size, in order to provide a more effective and comprehensive tool for tailoring UPA developing strategies to different contexts.

O objetivo deste estudo consiste em realizar um levantamento bibliométrico, visando mapear e analisar as publicações referentes ao tema agricultura urbana no Brasil, visando identificar as abordagens disponíveis sobre o tema, os tipos de agricultura urbana existente e por fim identificar os Estados com maior concentração de estudos sobre agricultura urbana. A pesquisa bibliométrica foi extraída dos documentos indexados na plataforma Scopus e Web of Science, sendo seleciondado os artigos cujos conteúdos estão diretamente relacionados ao tema. A discussão dos resultados foi desenvolvida de acordo com as seguintes etapas: (a) Busca por documentos a partir das palavras-chaves “urban agriculture” e “Brazil”; (b) Delimitação para apenas publicações de artigos, sendo encontrados 27 documentos; (c) Análise quantitativa da evolução cronológica das publicações, países, áreas de estudos, instituições, tipo de linguagem, tipo de documento, qualis das revistas e autor com mais publicações; e, (d) Análise qualitativa a partir da síntese dos artigos. O resultado estudo, verificou-se que as práticas da agricultura urbana no Brasil possuem abordagens com temas voltados para saúde, sustentabilidade, políticas públicas, paisagismo, trabalho em equipe, agricultura vertical, migração rural para urbana e agricultura indígena em áreas urbanas. Verificou-se também que os estudos sobre agricultura urbana no Brasil estão concentrados no estado do Pará, seguido de São Paulo, Rio Grande do Sul, Recife e Amazonas. Além, disso, constatou-se que a agricultura urbana e periurbana são praticadas em hortas, jardins, quintais, edifícios e através da criação de animais.
 Palavras-chave: Produção de alimentos. Áreas urbanas. Brasil.

Kampala, the capital city of Uganda, has experienced increases in the prices of basic food commodities since 2002, with the sharpest increase noticed over the period 2007–2011. Major factors contributing to this trend include rapid growth in the demand for food due to the increase in population, urbanisation, drought (climate changes) impacts in the agricultural areas of Uganda and a sharp increase in the cost of living driven by inflation. The increase in food prices has made it difficult for many low income earners in Kampala to meet their daily food requirements. In response, urban and peri-urban agriculture is making a very important contribution to the general food supply of the city. Besides making a significant contribution to the food basket of Kampala city, urban and peri-urban agriculture represents an important economic activity within the city. Emerging policy and planning frameworks support the continued positive contribution of urban and peri-urban agriculture. To that effect Kampala Capital City Authority (KCCA) now recognizes urban agriculture as a land use system and a vital policy issue. However, more is still needed from the public, urban authorities, urban planners and policy makers to strengthen this vital sector. The purpose of this paper is to discuss the development of urban and peri-urban agriculture and its contribution to the food supply crisis in Kampala city, as well as the process of developing policies to enable urban agriculture in Kampala city.