Updated pharmaceutical progress on plant antibiotic rhein and its analogs: Bioactivities, structure–activity relationships and future perspectives

Abstract

Rhein, as a plant antibiotic, demonstrates a broad spectrum of pharmacological effects. Nevertheless, its limited water solubility, low bioavailability, and potential hepatotoxicity and nephrotoxicity making it difficult to directly become a medicine, thereby imposing significant constraints on its clinical application. In recent decades, extensive researches have been proceeded on the multifaceted structural modifications of rhein, resulting in notable improvements on pharmacological activities and druggabilities. This review offers a comprehensive overview and advanced update on the biological potential and structural–activity relationships (SARs) of various rhein derivatives, delineating the sites of structural modification and corresponding activity trends of rhein derivatives for future.