Unraveling the dynamics of teacher-student relationships, emotions, and socioeconomic status in shaping subjective well-being among FL learners

Family context has been found to influence achievement emotions, but the factors that might moderate this association remain relatively unexplored. To address this gap, this research examined the moderation of teacher–student relationships (TSR) in the link between family socioeconomic status (SES) and emotions in foreign language (FL) learning drawing on control-value theory of achievement emotions and attachment theory. The research involved 4,155 eighth-grade students from China, who completed scales reporting their SES, FL enjoyment, FL anxiety, and FL burnout. The moderating effect model demonstrated that TSR played a moderating role in the relationship between SES and negative emotions in FL learning such as anxiety and burnout. However, no significant moderation was observed between SES and FL enjoyment. Specifically, a warm TSR was found to alleviate the negative impact of low SES on negative emotions in FL learning, such as anxiety and burnout. Conversely, TSR did not demonstrate the capacity to enhance the positive emotions associated with FL learning, such as enjoyment, among students from higher SES backgrounds. This research suggests the necessity to intervene with low SES students, with the aim of fostering supportive TSR and ultimately alleviating negative emotions in FL learning.

The importance of socioeconomic status (SES) in foreign language learning has received increasing attention. However, previous research mainly examined the direct link between SES and foreign language learning, and few explored what might mitigate this link, especially in collectivistic culture. Based on social capital theory and the attachment theory, this study explored the moderating role of teacher–student relationships (TSRs) in the link between SES and English learning in China. Data were collected from 1,181 grade 8 and 300 grade 11 students in China using self-reported SES questionnaire, TSRs scale, and English achievement test. The results show that TSRs negatively moderated the association between SES and English performance of Chinese students both in grade 8 and grade 11, but the moderating effect of TSRs was slightly greater in grade 11. That is, supportive TSRs mitigated the effects of SES on foreign language learning, especially for senior secondary students. This finding sheds light on foreign language teaching and learning in China and other countries with similar sociocultural context theoretically and practically.

This study illuminated the association between negative emotions such as anxiety and boredom and subjective well-being among foreign language (FL) learners and further examined the moderation of teacher-student relationships (TSR) in these associations, as conceptualised within attachment theory, control-value theory, and self-determination theory. The study involved 4,900 secondary school students from China, of whom 54.3% were male. Data on FL anxiety, FL boredom, subjective well-being, and TSR were collected using student self-report measures. Linear regression analysis indicated that anxiety and boredom were negatively correlated with subjective well-being of FL learners. Moderation analysis further revealed that supportive TSR mitigated these correlations. That is, supportive TSR acts as a buffer, reducing the adverse effects of anxiety and boredom on subjective well-being of FL learners. This research emphasises the crucial necessity of diminishing anxiety and boredom and cultivating supportive TSR in FL learning, with the goal of enhancing the well-being of FL learners.

Based on self‐determination theory, the present study investigated the moderation of teacher‐student relationships (TSR) in the association between anxiety and willingness to communicate (WTC) among foreign language (FL) learners and further examined potential gender differences. A total of 11,130 Chinese secondary students (51.2% female), ranging from grades 7 to 12 (mean age = 14.601, SD = 1.360), participated in the study, providing self‐reported measures as data sources. Moderation analysis revealed that TSR exhibited a negative moderation effect on the connection between anxiety and WTC. Specifically, when TSR was supportive, it could mitigate the detrimental impact of anxiety on FL learners’ WTC. Moreover, it was observed that supportive TSR had a more significant impact on reducing anxiety‐related barriers and enhancing WTC, particularly among female students. These findings illuminate the importance of self‐determination theory in FL teacher education, highlighting the critical role of fostering supportive TSR to promote communication willingness in FL learners.

This study employed latent profile analysis (LPA) to identify emotion profiles among foreign language (FL) learners and explored their relationship with FL achievement and subjective well-being, drawing on control-value theory. The participants included 4,109 Chinese secondary students who completed an English achievement test and online questionnaires focusing on subjective well-being and FL enjoyment, anxiety, and burnout. The LPA results indicated a four-profile model, categorized as “low enjoyment, anxiety, and burnout”, “low enjoyment with moderate anxiety and burnout”, “moderate enjoyment with low anxiety and burnout”, and “high enjoyment, anxiety, and burnout”. Four profiles showed significant differences in subjective well-being and English achievement. Notably, the group characterized by “moderate enjoyment with low anxiety and burnout” demonstrated the highest levels of subjective well-being and English achievement. In contrast, the group with “low enjoyment, anxiety, and burnout” exhibited the lowest outcomes in these areas. Additionally, the group characterized by “low enjoyment with moderate anxiety and burnout” outperformed the “high enjoyment, anxiety, and burnout” group in English achievement, despite experiencing lower subjective well-being. Significant differences in FL emotion profiles were also observed across gender, socioeconomic status, and boarding status. These findings provide valuable insights into FL instruction.

Family socioeconomic status (SES) has long been considered a critical factor in shaping educational disparities, including those observed in foreign language (FL) learning. Yet, the specific ways in which SES influences student engagement in FL learning are not well understood, nor are the factors that might moderate this relationship. Drawing from social capital theory, this study investigated the relationship between SES and student engagement in FL learning, explored the moderating role of teacher support, and further evaluated potential gender differences in this moderation. A total of 3,322 secondary school students (48.3% male) from Central China participated in the research, with an average age of 13.084 years (SD = 0.336). Data were collected using validated self-report scales for SES, teacher support, and student engagement in FL learning. The findings revealed that SES significantly correlated with student engagement in FL learning across cognitive, behavioral, emotional, and social dimensions. Robust teacher support was found to mitigate the negative effects of lower SES on student engagement in FL learning. Additionally, the moderation of teacher support in the link between SES and student engagement was more pronounced among female students compared to their male counterparts. These results may enrich social capital theory and underscore the need for high-support classroom climates and teacher practices that actively scaffold participation, particularly for students from lower-SES backgrounds.

With the growing emphasis on positive psychology, the well-being of foreign language (FL) learners has become a key area of focus. However, existing well-being scales are typically designed for the general population, and a scale specifically tailored to the unique experiences and challenges faced by FL learners is still lacking. To address this gap, the present study aimed to develop and validate a well-being scale specifically tailored for FL learners. Using a mixed-methods design, the study involved 1,182 secondary school students in China, with an average age of 14.14 years ( SD = 1.21) and spanning grades 7–12. Grounded in the positive emotion, engagement, relationships, meaning, and accomplishment well-being model, exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis confirmed an 18-item FL learner well-being scale. This five-factor scale, including FL positive emotion, FL engagement, FL interpersonal support, FL learning value, and FL accomplishment, demonstrated robust psychometric properties with high internal consistency and split-half reliability, as well as strong convergent, discriminant, and criterion validity. Furthermore, as evidence of criterion-related validity, this study revealed a significant negative correlation between FL learner well-being and FL anxiety, alongside a strong positive association with teacher–student relationships (TSRs). These findings not only provide a reliable tool for assessing FL learner well-being, but also offer empirical support for interventions that aim to enhance student well-being by fostering positive TSRs and reducing FL anxiety.

This study aims to investigate how the linguistic landscape can affect self-efficacy to improve the students’ foreign language enjoyment and learning in China with an emphasis on the moderating effect of language policy. It is crucial to establish how these factors influence students’ achievement in foreign language education in China. The current study sample comprised 550 students from different educational institutes in Beijing, China. Data were collected using convenience sampling technique. The study applied structural equation modeling (SEM) for analyzing the data using IBM SPSS AMOS software. The results affirm all proposed hypotheses. The findings reveal that linguistic landscape has a direct influence on self-efficacy (H1) and foreign language enjoyment and learning (H2). Self-efficacy has a positive effect on foreign language enjoyment and learning (H3). Self-efficacy positively mediates the relationship between linguistic landscape and foreign language enjoyment and learning (H4). Language policy has a positive and significant moderation effect between self-efficacy and foreign language enjoyment and learning. This study should be appreciated by educational institutions in recognizing the existing linguistic landscape as well as the policy that should be adopted in foreign language learning to improve the learning process and achievement.

While self‐regulation (SR) in student and teacher interactions in online environments, foreign language enjoyment (FLE), and foreign language anxiety (FLA) are significant issues in the English as a foreign language (EFL) learning process, research on SR in student and teacher interactions in online environments seems scarce in the EFL research context. This descriptive and correlational study aims to determine the levels of SR in student and teacher interactions in online learning environments, FLA, and FLE, and examine whether SR in student and teacher interactions in online learning environments predicts FLA and FLE. The sample group in the current study consisted of 312 students enrolled at the Department of English Language Teaching (ELT) of state universities. Data was collected using a background questionnaire, the Scale for Self‐regulation in Student and Teacher Interactions in Online Environments, the Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Scale (FLCAS), and the Foreign Language Enjoyment Scale (FLES). Descriptive statistics, regression analysis, and the Pearson correlation were preferred for data analysis. The study concluded that EFL learners exhibit high levels of SR in student and teacher interactions in online environments and FLE while experiencing a moderate level of FLA. It was also concluded that SR in student and teacher interactions in online learning environments predicts FLE and FLA among EFL learners. Context and implicationsRationale for this study:Online learning that has gained sustainability offers flexibility and interactivity and brings opportunities to enhance SR among foreign language learners, while FLE and FLA as emotional factors may impact SR in online interactions. However, no scientific evidence indicates the direction of FLE and FLA in online interactions between teachers and students in the context of foreign language learning. Moreover, research on SR is scarce in foreign language learning contexts regarding both traditional and online learning environments. Thus, a comparison of positive and negative emotions in the context of a foreign language seems necessary to clarify their effects in accordance with SR in online interactions.Why the new findings matter?The findings in the current study are significant for a better and deeper understanding of SR in interactions between students and teachers in online environments since it concludes that SR correlates negatively with FLA and positively with FLE. The study differs from prior studies since it finds that SR in student and teacher interactions in online environments predicts FLA and FLE in the EFL learning context.Implications for researchers, teachers, and policy makers:Researchers should focus on the relationships among SR in student and teacher interactions in online environments, FLA, and FLE, considering individual, social, psychological, and cultural differences in different research contexts and settings, designing longitudinal, qualitative, and experimental research. Teachers should adopt innovative instructional designs, tools, environments and applications to promote SR regarding their interactions with their students. Policy makers and curriculum developers should integrate and implement the mentioned issues into the pre‐service and in‐service teaching programmes and current language learning curricula and programmes that aim at equipping teachers with theoretical and practical knowledge of SR, FLA and FLE.

Foreign language enjoyment (FLE) is one of the crucial positive emotions shown by language learners. Those experiencing FLE are usually intrinsically motivated and highly engaged. However, research on foreign language learners’ FLE has not been extensively conducted in a mobile learning setting. Less is known on how and to what extent learning activities are related to FLE. To address this gap, this study designed a mobile-assisted language learning task and investigated novice Chinese as a foreign language (CFL) learners’ FLE level at different stages of the task. Based on two rounds of questionnaire survey and an email reflection, the respondents revealed a surprisingly high FLE level in three dimensions and their FLE fluctuated slightly with the proceeding of the task. The findings provide valuable insights on foreign language education associated with novice CFL learners’ FLE.

As smartphone addiction (SPA) among young learners grows, a consequential increase in learning burnout is observed. However, the association between SPA and learning burnout, especially in the context of foreign language (FL) learning, remains underexplored. In particular, the factors that might mitigate this relationship and the potential variations across genders have not been sufficiently examined. Drawing upon control value theory and social capital theory, this study sheds light on the moderating role of teacher-student rapport (TSR) in the SPA-FL burnout nexus, and also explores the potential gender differences. The research involved a total of 4,372 secondary-level students in China (54.3 % boys), using student-reported data on SPA, TSR, and FL learning burnout. The results revealed a positive correlation between SPA and burnout in FL learning. Furthermore, TSR played a crucial moderating role in this relationship. Interestingly, gender differences were identified in the moderating effect of TSR on the SPA-FL burnout link. That is, TSR only mitigated the effects of SPA on FL burnout among male students, but this did not hold true for female students. These findings have theoretical and pedagogical implications for FL education.

The present study is aimed at investigating the level and sources of foreign language enjoyment of foreign language teachers. The focus is to probe into foreign language enjoyment of teachers’ foreign language learning as well as foreign language teaching practices. The current research study has a mixed-method approach, and the research instrument is an online questionnaire with quantitative and qualitative items shared with foreign language teachers to fill out. We analyzed quantitative data through SPSS by applying descriptive and inferential statistics. The results highlighted a higher level of enjoyment in foreign language learning in comparison to foreign language teaching and there is no significant difference found in foreign language teaching enjoyment among all studied variables. Teachers’ positive attitude and positive FL learning environment in the classroom are the major ingredients for an enjoyable foreign language learning experience. The implication of the study lays stress on the versatile role of the teacher who is central to the whole learning process. Future researchers are prompted to probe into the insightful experiences and gain in-depth knowledge from foreign language teachers to identify and determine the areas that tend to render more foreign language learning and teaching enjoyment.

Family factors significantly influence the development of critical thinking (CT) dispositions. Yet, the dynamics of this influence among foreign language (FL) learners remain underexplored, with potential moderating factors still unclear. Building on social capital theory, social support theory, and ecological systems theory, this study explored this relationship among FL learners and further investigated whether teacher support moderates this connection. A total of 16,006 secondary students from China participated in the study, spanning grades 7 through 12 (M age = 14.842 years, SD = 1.416). Data were collected using student-reported CT disposition scale, FL teacher support scale, and SES questionnaire. Multiple regression analysis revealed a positive relationship between SES and CT dispositions of FL learners. Furthermore, moderation analysis showed that teacher support positively moderated this relationship. That is, higher levels of teacher support enhanced the positive effect of SES on CT dispositions among FL learners. This research has both theoretical and practical implications for the development of CT dispositions among FL learners.

Learning a language through another language is trivialto any type of language learning, whether it is the learning of a local or a foreign language. South Africa’s language policy for higher education recommends the study of foreign languages (FLs) and indigenous languages.A decade after its adoption, the learning of a foreign or indigenous language in that foreign or that indigenous language, respectively, at universities has been overlooked. In essence, the learning of foreign languages at the country’s universities dates back to the 19th century, when the first higher education institution,the South African College was established. At that College a Department of General Literature that offered Dutch, English, Latin and Ancient languages was established. English and Dutch teachers provided instruction in the English and Dutch language, respectively. The instructions involved theory, history and practice of English grammar and literature or Dutch grammar and literature. The learning of indigenous languages at the country’s universities began in the 20th century under the departments of Bantu Studies. They were learnt through English, and then later through English andAfrikaans. The instructions involved theory, history and practice of English grammar and literature. The aim of this study is to gain knowledge on the different approaches that may be used to learn a foreign language and an indigenous language. The study focuses on the complex challenges facing the country’s universities to adopt new, different and best models for the teaching of foreign and indigenous languages after many decades of using English and Afrikaans mediums. A case study method is used for this study. The emphasis is on the learning of foreign versus indigenous languages in South African universities (SAUs). The paper consists of an introduction, the theory of Grammar Translation Method (GTM), a case study on the learning of foreign versus South African indigenous languages (SAILs) at the SAUs, and a conclusion. Keywords: foreign language, indigenous language, learning, English, Afrikaans

Drawing from rational emotive behavior therapy (REBT), this research explored the predictive power of critical thinking (CT) disposition on foreign language (FL) engagement. Additionally, it examined whether emotions mediate this relationship and how achievement levels moderate these mediation effects. The study involved 3238 Chinese secondary students, with data collected through self‐reported scales measuring CT disposition, enjoyment, anxiety, boredom, and engagement in FL learning, as well as FL achievement tests. Mediation analysis revealed that CT disposition was significantly and positively associated with FL engagement. Moreover, this relationship was mediated by FL enjoyment, anxiety, and boredom. Additionally, anxiety and boredom notably mediated the relationship between CT disposition and FL engagement, especially among high‐achieving students. However, moderated mediation analysis showed that the mediation effect of FL enjoyment did not significantly differ between high‐achieving and low‐achieving groups. This research holds theoretical, practical, and methodological implications for FL teaching and learning, providing insights into how emotional responses influenced by CT can affect student engagement across different achievement levels.