Unlocking the power of AI-driven adaptive Chinese learning: Exploring its correlation with student competence, self-regulation, cognitive load, and goal setting through the lens of Achievement Goal Theory

Context specificity, or the variation in a participant's performance from one case, or situation, to the next, is a recognized problem in medical education. However, studies have not explored the potential reasons for context specificity in experts using the lens of situated cognition and cognitive load theories (CLT). Using these theories, we explored the influence of selected contextual factors on clinical reasoning performance in internal medicine experts. We constructed and validated a series of videotapes portraying different chief complaints for three common diagnoses seen in internal medicine. Using the situated cognition framework, we modified selected contextual factors--patient, encounter, and/or physician--in each videotape. Following each videotape, participants completed a post-encounter form (PEF) and a think-aloud protocol. A survey estimating recent exposure from their practice to the correct videotape diagnoses was also completed. The time given to complete the PEF was randomly varied with each videotape. Qualitative utterances from the think-aloud procedure were converted to numeric measures of cognitive load. Survey and cognitive load measures were correlated with PEF performance. Pearson correlations were used to assess relations between the independent variables (cognitive load, survey of experience, contextual factors modified) and PEF performance. To further explore context specificity, analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was used to assess differences in PEF scores, by diagnosis, after controlling for time. Low correlations between PEF sections, both across diagnoses and within each diagnosis, were observed (r values ranged from -.63 to .60). Limiting the time to complete the PEF impacted PEF performance (r = .2 to .4). Context specificity was further substantiated by demonstrating significant differences on most PEF section scores with a diagnosis (ANCOVA). Cognitive load measures were negatively correlated with PEF scores. The presence of selected contextual factors appeared to influence diagnostic more than therapeutic reasoning (r = -.2 to -.38). Contextual factors appear to impact expert physician performance. The impact observed is consistent with situated cognition and CLT's predictions. These findings have potential implications for educational theory and clinical practice.

ABSTRACTScience centers such as museums and planetariums have used stereoscopic (“three‐dimensional”) films to draw interest from and educate their visitors for decades. Despite the fact that most adults who are finished with their formal education get their science knowledge from such free‐choice learning settings very little is known about the effect of stereoscopic film presentation on their science learning. We explored this issue by designing a quasi‐experimental field trial with a short film about the shape of the Milky Way galaxy. The film was produced based on a set of stereoscopic design principles derived from spatial cognition and cognitive load literature with the goal of lowering the audience's extraneous cognitive load. The film was randomly shown in either two‐dimensional (2D) or stereoscopic format to 498 adults who visited a large, urban planetarium. To investigate the extent of audience's change related to galaxy‐related spatial concepts, an identical set of questions was asked on iPads before and after the film was shown. A delayed posttest was given to 123 of those adults approximately 6 months later. Test performances were analyzed using repeated measures analysis of covariances (ANCOVAs) with demographic and spatial visualization ability measures as covariates. Results show identical short‐term learning gains in both the 2D and stereoscopic groups. However, only the stereoscopic group exhibited long‐term learning gains. Findings were interpreted through the lenses of cognitive load theory and the limited capacity model of mediated message processing.

The rapid integration of Artificial Intelligence (AI) in educational settings has transformed pedagogical approaches, with Intelligent Tutoring Systems (ITS) emerging as a prominent alternative to traditional instructional methods. This study examines the cognitive load effects of AI tutoring systems compared to conventional classroom instruction through the lens of Cognitive Load Theory (CLT). The research synthesizes recent empirical evidence to evaluate how AI-powered adaptive learning platforms manage intrinsic, extraneous, and germane cognitive load differently than traditional teacher-led instruction. Findings indicate that AI tutoring systems can effectively reduce extraneous cognitive load through personalized content delivery and real-time adaptations while maintaining optimal levels of germane load for knowledge construction. However, the effectiveness varies significantly based on implementation quality, subject domain, learner characteristics, and the integration of pedagogical principles. Traditional instructional methods demonstrate advantages in fostering social interaction and metacognitive development, though they may impose higher extraneous load on diverse learner populations. The study reveals that hybrid approaches combining AI tutoring with human instruction yield superior outcomes in managing cognitive load across different learning contexts. These findings have important implications for educational technology design and instructional practice, suggesting that AI tutoring systems should complement rather than replace traditional teaching methods to optimize cognitive resource allocation and enhance learning efficacy.

"There is a link between learning theories and online education in the sense that the use of certain e-Tools available in educational platforms could be biased by the epistemological beliefs of the teachers. The complexity of the educational message, in relation to the biased e-Tools selection for the learning task, together with the information processing that derives from the learning activity contributes to the intrinsic cognitive load. In order to optimize this cognitive load that can reach a high and an undesirable level for learning, this article aims to bridge online learning with the main theories of learning and cognitive load theory. The triangulation of these data, based on several sources from the specialized literature, provides an extended picture of the dominant cognitive processes determined by the tools used in the online learning space. This article could represent a source for the theoretical foundation of an online learning instructional design and for placing the online education closer to methodology, rather than technology. Keywords: online learning, instructional design, cognitive load, information processing, learning theories"

Automatic cognitive load evaluation using writing features: An exploratory study

Although the utilization of mobile technologies has recently emerged in various educational settings, limited research has focused on cognitive load detection in the pen‐based learning process. This research conducted two experimental studies to investigate what and how multimodal data can be used to measure and classify learners' real‐time cognitive load. The results found that it was a promising method to predict learners' cognitive load by analysing their handwriting, touch gestural and eye‐tracking data individually and conjunctively. The machine learning approach used in this research achieved a prediction accuracy of 0.86 area under the receiver operating characteristic curve (AUC) and 0.85/0.86 sensitivity/specificity by only using handwriting data, 0.93 AUC and 0.93/0.94 sensitivity/specificity by only using touch gestural data, and 0.94 AUC and 0.94/0.95 sensitivity/specificity by using both the touch gestural and eye‐tracking data. The results can contribute to the optimization of cognitive load and the development of adaptive learning systems for pen‐based mobile learning. Practitioner notesWhat is already known about this topic Pen‐based mobile learning systems allow natural ways of handwriting and gestural touching, which can facilitate learners' cognitive processes in mobile learning. Behavioural and physiological multimodal data are helpful in detecting learners' real‐time cognitive load in mobile learning. The effectiveness of behavioural and physiological multimodal data for measuring cognitive load in pen‐based mobile learning is limited investigated. What this paper adds This paper confirms the effectiveness of handwriting and touch gestural multimodal data for measuring pen‐based learning cognitive load, in terms of their stroke‐, path‐ and time‐based features. This paper explores the potential of eye‐tracking data in measuring pen‐based learning cognitive load. A combination of behavioural and physiological multimodal data is reported to increase the prediction accuracy for cognitive load measurement. Implications for practice and/or policy Practitioners are suggested to use behavioural and physiological multimodal data individually or conjunctively for measuring cognitive load in pen‐based learning. The results provide guides for developing adaptive pen‐based learning systems by optimizing the real‐time cognitive load.

The article presents the results of an experimental study on the effectiveness of adaptive learning based on biometric assessment of students' cognitive load within an educational and scientific cluster. The main aim of the study was to examine the impact of physiological indicators, particularly heart rate, on the adaptation of the learning process to enhance its effectiveness. During the study, students' heart rates were monitored to determine their level of cognitive load. In cases of detected elevated load, the teaching pace was slowed down or breaks were introduced. The results of the final assessment demonstrated a statistically significant advantage of the experimental group over the control group. Correlation analysis revealed a strong relationship between heart rate levels and the quality of material assimilation, confirming the effectiveness of using biometric data to adapt the learning process. In addition, the article discusses biometric indicators such as skin conductivity and eye movements as objective markers of cognitive state during learning. The experience of integrating biometric feedback into educational platforms is analyzed, including studies in the field of augmented reality and the use of artificial intelligence for adaptive learning. A concept of AI system architecture for automated monitoring and adaptation of the learning process in real time is proposed. Special attention is given to educational and scientific clusters as environments for the development and implementation of innovative adaptive learning technologies based on biometric monitoring. The advantages of the cluster approach for the personalization of learning and the provision of interdisciplinary collaboration among educational institutions, research organizations, and the IT sector are outlined. Within the study, the effectiveness of adaptive learning based on biometric data for enhancing motivation, reducing stress, and improving students' academic performance during the educational process is substantiated.

This study investigates the impact of AI-assisted language learning (AIAL) strategies on cognitive load and learning outcomes in the context of language acquisition. Specifically, the study explores three distinct AIAL strategies: personalized feedback and adaptive learning, interactive exercises with speech recognition, and intelligent tutoring with data-driven insights. The research employs a pretest-posttest random assignment experimental design, utilizing three experimental groups and a control group, with a total of 484 EFL students specializing in teaching English as a foreign language participating in the study. Data collection involves pre- and post-tests, questionnaires, and interviews to assess the influence of AIAL strategies on cognitive load and learning outcomes. Cognitive load is measured using the Cognitive Load Scale, while pretest-posttest assessments evaluate the efficacy of AIAL interventions across various language skills. These results contribute to the existing body of AIAL research by offering empirical evidence for the effectiveness of specific strategies in optimizing language learning experiences. The implications of this study extend to educators, researchers, and developers in the field of AIAL, emphasizing the potential of AIAL to enhance language acquisition processes and inform instructional design practices.

This study examines the effects of adaptive learning technology on cognitive load in special education classrooms using a quantitative approach. The research included students with various disabilities who interacted with adaptive learning tools such as Virtual Reality (VR), Gamification, and Artificial Intelligence (AI). Data analysis involved statistical methods like descriptive statistics, t-tests, ANOVA, correlation, and regression analyses. The findings indicate notable differences in the cognitive load associated with different technologies, with AI technology resulting in a higher cognitive burden compared to VR and Gamification. Additionally, factors such as academic performance, age, and gender were found to influence the level of cognitive load experienced by students. The results emphasize the importance of considering the cognitive demands of adaptive learning technologies and tailoring instructional design and technology integration based on individual needs. Recommendations are offered to educators, curriculum developers, and policymakers to enhance learning opportunities for students with disabilities.

This study had two main purposes. First, to test how the availability of documents in multiple document reading might affect students’ levels of cognitive load. Secondly, to develop an instrument that captures the different sources of load when working with multiple documents. A total of 125 secondary school students read four short texts on transgenic foods and subsequently responded to an open-ended question that required them to write an essay expressing their personal stance towards the topic. Participants in the experimental treatment condition (n = 54) were allowed to go back to the texts any time during the essay task, whereas their peers in the control condition (n = 71) were not allowed to do so. As hypothesized through the lens of cognitive load theory, the cognitive load arising from cognitive processes that in themselves do not contribute to learning (i.e., extraneous cognitive load) was somewhat lower in the experimental treatment condition, probably due to split attention effects in the control condition. However, no statistically significant differences were found in perceived task complexity or learning task performance. A reliable instrument to measure different sources of intrinsic and extraneous load in multiple document reading is provided. Implications of these findings for future research are discussed.

The mechanism through which emotional states impact learning is not yet fully understood. Through the lens of cognitive load theory, this study examines the relationship between emotional valence and learning during an algebra-based mathematics task and explores cognitive load as a potential mechanism through which emotions impact learning. Using structural equation modelling and path analysis of Australian Year 7 and 8 Secondary School students completing an algebraic learning task, we test a hypothesised model whereby extraneous cognitive load mediates the relationship between positive emotions, painful emotions, and learning. This model was tested against an alternative model with emotions mediating the relationship between extraneous cognitive load and learning. Results demonstrate that extraneous cognitive load mediates the relationship between painful emotions and learning. Alternatively, positive emotions were related to learning but not mediated by extraneous cognitive load. Implications of these findings for teachers and educators are also discussed.

Handover between colleagues is a complex task. The problem is that handovers are often inadequate because they are not structured according to theoretically grounded guidelines. Based on the cognitive load theory, we suggest that allowing a clarifying dialogue and thereby optimizing germane cognitive load enhances the information quality and diagnostic accuracy at handover, but may prolong handover duration. We also expect that mentioning key information first and thus decreasing intrinsic cognitive load improves information quality and diagnostic accuracy. We developed two representative paediatric cases for presentation in a factorial 2 × 2 design. Sixth-year medical students (N = 80) were randomly assigned to one of four groups that differed with regard to how the case histories were delivered to them (chronological order versus key information mentioned first) and direction of information exchange (unidirectional versus a clarifying dialogue). The receivers of the handover were asked to write a report of the cases and suggest the best diagnosis. Dependent variables were information quality of the written report (Information score), quality of the diagnosis (Diagnostic accuracy score) and the time it took to deliver the written handover case report (Handover report duration). Seen through the lens of cognitive load theory, allowing a clarifying dialogue at handover, and thus optimizing the germane cognitive load, significantly increased the Information score (p < 0.0005), Diagnostic accuracy score (< 0.05) and Handover report duration (p < 0.001).

The goals of this study were (1) determine the prevalence of various features of representations in five general chemistry textbooks used in the United States, and (2) use cognitive load theory to draw implications of the various features of analyzed representations. We adapted the Graphical Analysis Protocol (GAP) (Sloughet al., 2010) to look at the type of representations used, the function of each representation, the physical integration of representations with associated text, the presence and nature of captions and labels, the indexing of representations, and the number of representations requiring conceptual integration on a given page. Results indicate that on average, in all five textbooks each page had at least four representations. Most representations served a ‘representational’ function, but a number functioned as decorative representations. Most representations were directly integrated with text, but some of the remaining representations were separated by a whole page from associated text. While many pages had an average of two representations that required conceptual integration with text or other representations, some pages had as many as six representations requiring integration. While using textbooks, learners can experience intrinsic, germane or extraneous cognitive load (Sweller, 1994). Our findings indicate that there are various features of representations that could help reduce intrinsic or extraneous cognitive load. However, we also found prevalent features of representations that imply high intrinsic cognitive load or are likely to lead to extraneous cognitive load. Implications for textbook authors and editors, textbook selection, instruction, and science teacher preparation are discussed.

PurposeThe purpose of this study is to investigate the effectiveness of diagrammatic visualisation techniques versus sentential learning contexts in an accounting subject using the theoretical lens of cognitive load theory (CLT).Design/methodology/approachThe present study used four groups of students; two groups completed a task using diagrammatic visualisation learning materials, with one of the groups undertaking their leaning activities collaboratively and another on an individual basis, whereas two comparison groups were given a sentential learning context without diagrams, with one group undertaking their leaning activities collaboratively and the other individually. In addition to performance grades, cognitive load self-report scores were also elicited from participants.FindingsThe findings of this study indicate support for diagrammatic visualisation techniques for students working collaboratively. Compared with sentential learners, the authors find significantly improved test performance for students who work collaboratively in a diagrammatic visualisation environment. Students in the visualisation environments obtained higher grades than those in the sentential group. In terms of mental effort, students in the visualisation conditions reported the lowest cognitive load.Practical implicationsThe authors conclude that diagrammatic visualisation learning techniques enhance student performance outcomes, particularly for those who work collaboratively. CLT assists in the understanding of the mental processes involved in learning. Instructional designers need to consider CLT when developing diagrammatic visualisation material to enable students to obtain the best possible learning outcomes.Originality/valueThis study addresses a gap in the literature by examining the use of diagrammatic visualisation materials as an alternative to text when learning accounting. The study explores the effect of visualisation material on students’ cognitive load by analysing their mental effort. The study contributes useful findings on visualisation as a conduit to enhancing the understanding of accounting using CLT principles.

Safe anesthesia is indispensable to achieve global safe surgery and equitable health care access. The disease burden and lack of specialists in South Africa (SA) require junior, nonspecialist doctors to be fit-for-purpose from day 1 when they provide anesthetic services in peripheral hospitals with limited supervision. Graduating students report low self-perceived preparedness for administering anesthesia, but it is not known how their curricular experiences influence their learning. Cognitive load theory defines intrinsic, extraneous, and germane cognitive loads (subtypes). Intrinsic load relates to learning tasks, extraneous load to distractions, and germane load to students' learning processes. This study used a cognitive load theory lens to explore SA students' experiences of their undergraduate anesthesia training. In a constructivist cross-sectional descriptive study, we explored the qualitative factors that influenced students' curricular experience of undergraduate anesthesia training in SA. Two investigators analyzed the data independently in an initial coding round. An emerging theme of lack of time to achieve the expected outcomes, prompted the use of cognitive load theory as a conceptual framework for further analysis by the 3 authors. The subsequent analysis informed the development and refinement of a final cognitive load theory framework for anesthesia training, the COLOAD (COgnitive LOad in Anesthesia eDucation) framework. Data were collected between November 2017 and February 2019. The 1336 respondents (79% participation) reported a variety of determinants of learning pertaining to all 3 cognitive load subtypes. Participants were novices in an inherently complex environment and experienced a high cognitive load during anesthesia training. The number-, complexity-, and interactivity of tasks influenced intrinsic load, while extraneous load was affected by ineffective instructional methods, external- and internal distractors. Program design, metacognition, and learner motivation impacted germane load. Cognitive load theory provided a useful theoretical basis for understanding students' curricular experiences. The COLOAD framework suggests a microlevel interrelatedness of the constituting elements of the 3 cognitive load subtypes. This has implications for curriculum design, pedagogy, and student support. Learning outcomes development and curriculum mapping are important to ensure a lean curriculum, but measures to enhance germane cognitive load might be equally important to achieve competence. Attention to the hidden curriculum and active promotion of reflective practice might reduce cognitive load in complex learning environments such as anesthesia training.