Unearthing the Realities: A Qualitative Exploration of the Problems and Issues of Child Labor among Rohingya Minors in Bangladesh

According to the International Labour Organization (ILO), sub-Saharan Africa has the highest rate of child labour in the world. An estimated one third of the region’s boys and girls aged 5-17 are believed to be ‘economically active’. These staggering figures have led to an international crusade to eliminate child labour globally, focusing on hazardous work because there is shared consensus among policymakers that it is a violation of human rights and a major impediment to human capital accumulation and therefore, stands in the way of sustainable economic growth in countries where it is found. One country in the region where this problem is particularly visible, and which has been heavily scrutinised by the ILO and implementation partners in particular for having high concentrations of what is referred to in the donor lexicon as Worst Forms of Child Labour (WFCL) is Ghana. A major focus of these assessments is artisanal and small-scale mining (ASM), low-tech, labour-intensive mineral extraction and processing which, throughout Ghana and most other areas in sub-Saharan Africa, is mostly poverty-driven, providing employment to otherwise incomeless families. The campaign spearheaded by the ILO under the auspices of the WFCL agenda to eliminate child labour from ASM in Ghana and the wider sub-region builds a case around how young boys and girls carry out arduous work and are generally being exploited at sites. Recent research, however, has revealed that the child labour ‘problem’ in Ghana and rural sub-Saharan Africa more broadly is far more nuanced than has been diagnosed by donors. The ASM sector is no exception: research undertaken over the past decade has shown that the growth of its activities linked to a wider de-agrarianisation process – specifically the movement of rural families into the nonfarm economy, in response to the inability of agriculture to sustain, fully, their economic needs – to which the child labour ‘problem’ diagnosed is inextricably linked. Specifically, the ASM sector, being the region’s most important rural nonfarm activity, has become a popular ‘off farm’ destination for hundreds of thousands of families and other jobless masses. This movement has naturally contributed to the increased ‘presence’ of children at artisanal mines, where, contrary to the position of donors, work undertaken rarely extends beyond tasks similar to those carried out on family farms. The case of Ghana, the location of one of the largest and more dynamic ASM economies in sub-Saharan Africa, illustrates this very clearly. The aim of this thesis is to build on these observations by engaging more critically with the main debates on child labour with a view to articulating more comprehensively why children are pursuing ‘hazardous’ work in ASM camps across the region. It does this by analysing key policy documents, conducting observations and semi-structured interviews with policymakers, non-governmental organisations (NGOs), community leaders, educators, parents and children. Together, these sources of information broach a rich range of issues for analysis and allow for the exploration and construction of broader discourses in connection with the main themes and theories of this research study. This thesis provides a more comprehensive picture of the child labour phenomenon in rural sub-Saharan Africa. Findings suggest that many of the so-called ‘exploited’ children in ASM are engaging in what ILO officials themselves would consider light work akin to the chores countless young African girls and boys perform on family farms; that children’s earnings are being used to alleviate the economic hardships of their households but that work is generally taking place outside of school hours and during school vacations; and that for some children, the sole motivation for working at mines is to generate sufficient money to pay for school fees. Overall, the research study informs debates on child labour, education and family hardship in the region, and arms policymakers with information to assist in their quests to tackle child labour and associated rural poverty – two priority issues identified in most of the region’s Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers (PRSP) and two central themes of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG), namely Target 4.1 (‘By 2030, ensure that all girls and boys complete free, equitable and quality primary and secondary education leading to relevant and effective learning outcomes’) and Target 8.7 (‘Take immediate and effective measures to eradicate forced labour, end modern slavery and human trafficking and secure the prohibition and elimination of the worst forms of child labour, including recruitment and use of child soldiers, and by 2025 end child labour in all its forms’).

Stateless Rohingya children in Bangladesh's refugee camps, lacking citizenship or legal safeguards, face heightened risks of human rights abuses like child labor and early marriage. This qualitative study explored these challenges, comparing Rohingya and host community children, specifically regarding child labor and well-being. Conducted from February 23 to March 18, 2022, the research employed 20 in-depth interviews with children (aged 11-17) and 20 Key Informant Interviews (KIIs) with stakeholders and leaders. Due to restrictions, child interviews relied on note-taking, while KIIs were audio-recorded, transcribed, and thematically analyzed. A combination of convenience and purposive sampling methods was used to select participants. Findings revealed that child labor significantly harms well-being in both communities. Children's vulnerability makes them easy targets for exploitation through low wages and intimidation. Economic necessity frequently compels families to send children to work, severely impacting their education and development. Older boys (15-17 years) were more commonly engaged in paid work than girls. The COVID-19 pandemic exacerbated the situation, increasing child labor in sectors like shop/restaurant assistance and driving three-wheelers. The KIIs identify specific types of labor, such as carrying goods, farming, and construction work, that were prevalent among children. Key drivers included illness of primary earners, lack of access to education, and children needing income for personal expenses. Hazardous tasks like handling gas cylinders or carrying heavy loads pose serious health risks, causing physical pain, injuries, and mental strain. KIIs further highlighted rampant camp issues like child marriage, trafficking, and other violence, disproportionately affecting girls. Urgent, comprehensive interventions are critical. Breaking this cycle requires collaborative stakeholder efforts to establish robust support systems encompassing education, healthcare, and legal protections. Without immediate action, these children's futures remain perilously at risk, perpetuating cycles of poverty and exploitation.

Stateless Rohingya children in Bangladesh’s refugee camps, lacking citizenship or legal safeguards, face heightened risks of human rights abuses like child labor and early marriage. This qualitative study explored these challenges, comparing Rohingya and host community children, specifically regarding child labor and well-being. Conducted from February 23 to March 18, 2022, the research employed 20 in-depth interviews with children (aged 11–17) and 20 Key Informant Interviews (KIIs) with stakeholders and leaders. Due to restrictions, child interviews relied on note-taking, while KIIs were audio-recorded, transcribed, and thematically analyzed. A combination of convenience and purposive sampling methods was used to select participants. Findings revealed that child labor significantly harms well-being in both communities. Children’s vulnerability makes them easy targets for exploitation through low wages and intimidation. Economic necessity frequently compels families to send children to work, severely impacting their education and development. Older boys (15–17 years) were more commonly engaged in paid work than girls. The COVID-19 pandemic exacerbated the situation, increasing child labor in sectors like shop/restaurant assistance and driving three-wheelers. The KIIs identify specific types of labor, such as carrying goods, farming, and construction work, that were prevalent among children. Key drivers included illness of primary earners, lack of access to education, and children needing income for personal expenses. Hazardous tasks like handling gas cylinders or carrying heavy loads pose serious health risks, causing physical pain, injuries, and mental strain. KIIs further highlighted rampant camp issues like child marriage, trafficking, and other violence, disproportionately affecting girls. Urgent, comprehensive interventions are critical. Breaking this cycle requires collaborative stakeholder efforts to establish robust support systems encompassing education, healthcare, and legal protections. Without immediate action, these children’s futures remain perilously at risk, perpetuating cycles of poverty and exploitation.

Protecting Autonomy of Rohingya Women in Sexual and Reproductive Health Interventions

Schooling and Labor Market Impacts of Bolivia's <i>Bono Juancito Pinto</i> Program

Self-wetting is the leakage of urine, either due to the medical condition of urinary incontinence (UI), or because a person does not want to, or cannot, access a toileting facility in time. This study explored the attitudes towards self-wetting and experiences of children (aged five to 11), their caregivers, community leaders and humanitarian practitioners in the Rohingya refugee camps in Cox's Bazar, Bangladesh. We particularly focused on how water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) and protection interventions might assist in improving these experiences. We purposively selected participants from two camps where our partner organisation works. We conducted Key Informant Interviews (KIIs) with community leaders and camp officials, Story Book (SB) sessions with Rohingya children and in-depth Interviews (IDIs) with caregivers of children who participated in the SB sessions, as well as surveying communal toilets. Self-wetting by children was common and resulted in them feeling embarrassed, upset and uncomfortable, and frightened to use the toilet at night; many children also indicated that they would be punished by their caregivers for self-wetting. Key informants indicated that caregivers have difficulty handling children's self-wetting due to a limited amount of clothing, pillows, and blankets, and difficulty cleaning these items. It was evident that the available toilets are often not appropriate and/or accessible for children. Children in the Rohingya camps appear to self-wet due to both the medical condition of UI and because the sanitation facilities are inappropriate. They are teased by their peers and punished by their caregivers. Although WASH and protection practitioners are unable to drastically alter camp conditions or treat UI, the lives of children who self-wet in these camps could likely be improved by increasing awareness on self-wetting to decrease stigma and ease the concerns of caregivers, increasing the number of child-friendly toilets and increasing the provision of continence management materials.

BackgroundThe care and protection of the estimated 143,000,000 orphaned and abandoned children (OAC) worldwide is of great importance to global policy makers and child service providers in low and middle income countries (LMICs), yet little is known about rates of child labour among OAC, what child and caregiver characteristics predict child engagement in work and labour, or when such work infers with schooling. This study examines rates and correlates of child labour among OAC and associations of child labour with schooling in a cohort of OAC in 5 LMICs.MethodsThe Positive Outcomes for Orphans (POFO) study employed a two-stage random sampling survey methodology to identify 1480 single and double orphans and children abandoned by both parents ages 6-12 living in family settings in five LMICs: Cambodia, Ethiopia, India, Kenya, and Tanzania. Regression models examined child and caregiver associations with: any work versus no work; and with working <21, 21-27, and 28+ hours during the past week, and child labour (UNICEF definition).ResultsThe majority of OAC (60.7%) engaged in work during the past week, and of those who worked, 17.8% (10.5% of the total sample) worked 28 or more hours. More than one-fifth (21.9%; 13% of the total sample) met UNICEF's child labour definition. Female OAC and those in good health had increased odds of working. OAC living in rural areas, lower household wealth and caregivers not earning an income were associated with increased child labour. Child labour, but not working fewer than 28 hours per week, was associated with decreased school attendance.ConclusionsOne in seven OAC in this study were reported to be engaged in child labour. Policy makers and social service providers need to pay close attention to the demands being placed on female OAC, particularly in rural areas and poor households with limited income sources. Programs to promote OAC school attendance may need to focus on the needs of families as well as the OAC.

Childhood immunization remains a critical public health strategy to reduce morbidity and mortality associated with vaccine-preventable diseases. This study assesses the enablers and barriers to childhood immunization in Gassol Local Government Area (LGA) of Taraba State, Nigeria, using a qualitative research approach. Data were collected through Key Informant Interviews (KII) and Focus Group Discussions (FGD) with caregivers, healthcare workers, and community leaders. Key enablers identified include community awareness campaigns, support from local leaders, accessible healthcare infrastructure, trust in healthcare professionals, and government and NGO-supported initiatives. Conversely, barriers to immunization encompass cultural beliefs, misinformation about vaccines, logistical challenges such as vaccine stockouts and inconvenient scheduling, limited engagement by healthcare workers, and financial constraints faced by caregivers. The findings show the importance of targeted strategies to strengthen community engagement, improve healthcare accessibility, and address sociocultural and economic barriers.

BackgroundThe incidence of child labour, especially across developing nations, is of global concern. The use of children in employment in developing economies constitutes a major threat to the societies, and concerted efforts are made by the relevant stakeholders towards addressing some of the factors and issues responsible. Significant risk factors include socio-demographic and economic factors such as poverty, neglect, lack of adequate care, exposure of children to various grades of violence, parental education status, gender, place of residence, household size, residence type or size, wealth index, parental survivorship and household size. Egypt is the largest country in Africa by population. Although UNCIF 2017 reported that the worst forms of child labour in Egypt are concentrated in domestic work, forced begging and commercial sexual exploitation, the situation has received little attention. There are still very few studies initiated specifically to look at child labour in domestic service in Egypt and those that exist have been limited in the scope of their methodology. Geographical coverage and research for child labour in Egypt is also limited, as are accurate statistics and data. There was, therefore, a strong case for looking again at the domestic child labour phenomenon in Egypt, especially after the Demographic Health Survey (DHS) released the first data about child labour in Egypt in 2014. This study builds on the few findings of earlier work, and broadens coverage by including advanced methods and geographical effects of this problem.ObjectivesThis study focuses on identifying socio-demographic, economic and geospatial factors associated with child labour participation.MethodsWe used the 2014 Egypt Demographic and Health Survey (EDHS) from the Ministry of Health and Population in Egypt, with the record of 20,560 never-married children aged 5–17 years engaging in economic activities, in and out of their home. The data focused on demographic and socio-economic characteristics of household members. Multivariate Bayesian geo-additive models were employed to examine the demographical and socio-economic factors for children working less than 16 hrs; between 16 and less 45 hrs; and over 45 hrs weekly.ResultsThe results showed that at least 31.6% of the children in the age group from 5–10 were working, 68.5% of children aged 11–17 years were engaged in child labour for a wage, and 44.7% of the children in the age group from 5–10 were engaged in hazardous work. From the multivariate Bayesian geo-additive models, female children (with male children as reference category) working at least 16 hrs (OR: 1.3; with 95% CI: 1.2–1.5) were more likely to be engaged in child labour than girls working 16 to 45 hrs (OR: 1; 95% CI: 0.3–1.5). Children born to women without formal education, in non-hazardous jobs, irrespective of the hours spent at work, were more likely to be involved in child labour (52.9%, 56.8%, 62.4%) compared to children of mothers with some level of education. Finally, children who have experienced psychological aggression and physical punishment are more likely to be used as child labour than those without such experience across the job types and hours spent. North-eastern Egypt has a higher likelihood of child labour than most other regions, while children who live in the Delta are more engaged in hazardous work.ConclusionThis study revealed a significant influence of socio-demographic and economic factors on child labour and violence against children in Egypt. Poverty, neglect, lack of adequate care and exposure of children to various grades of violence are major drivers of child labour across the country. The spatial effect suggests the need to give more attention to some areas that have high rates of child labour, such as the Nile Delta, Upper Egypt, and North-eastern Egypt.

The aim of this study was to examine contraception awareness and use among African Australian women in Melbourne, Australia, who have experienced teenage pregnancy, and to explore the social contexts that shape these women's attitudes towards contraception. Among young immigrant and refugee women living in sites of settlement, knowledge and use of contraception are a public health concern. The study used a qualitative research approach and was informed by anthropology, public health and human rights frameworks. Between June 2009 and November 2010, in-depth interviews were conducted in Melbourne, Australia, with 16 African Australian teenagers and women who had experienced teenage pregnancy. In addition, two focus group discussions were held with service providers and African women and five key informant interviews were conducted. Data were transcribed verbatim, coded, and key themes identified and analysed using thematic analysis. The findings revealed that attitudes towards and use of contraception are influenced by parental sexual health literacy and attitudes, gender roles and culturally informed attitudes around motherhood. Service providers should consider the value of whole-of-family and community approaches in order to improve knowledge and decision-making around contraception among young African Australian women.

Background: We investigated pregnant women, community leaders, healthcare workers (HCWs) and programme managers’ perceptions of maternal vaccination in Kampala, Uganda. Methods: We conducted focus group discussions, key informant interviews and in-depth discussions with HCWs (3), community leaders (3), pregnant women (8) and programme managers (10) between November 2019 and October 2020. Data were analysed thematically. Results: Pregnant women, community leaders and some HCWs had limited maternal immunisation knowledge. There was confusion over what constitutes a vaccine. Pregnant women may not receive vaccines because of mistrust of government; use of expired vaccines; reliance on traditional medicine; religious beliefs; fear of side effects; HCWs attitudes; and logistical issues. The key facilitators of maternal vaccination were a desire to prevent diseases, positive influences from HCWs and information about vaccine side effects. Community leaders and some pregnant women highlighted that pregnant women do not make decisions about maternal vaccination independently and are influenced by different individuals, including other pregnant women, older people, partners, relatives (parents), community leaders, HCWs and the government. Conclusions: Our results indicate that public health messaging should target all community members, including partners and parents of pregnant women as well as HCWs, to improve knowledge of and confidence in maternal vaccines.

The edu-workscape: Re-conceptualizing the relationship between work and education in rural children’s lives in Sub-Saharan Africa

Educating the poorest and ideas of poverty

According to the International Labour Organization, more than 218 million children in the world today are involved in child labor, often doing work that is damaging to their mental, physical, and emotional development. At least 126 million children are performing hazardous work. For many decades, children have been recognized as a vulnerable population in need of and deserving special protections, as reflected in international conventions and national laws. This special issue of the International Journal of Occupational and Environmental Health presents research on child and adolescent labor around the world, focusing on studies that evaluate health effects from exposures at work; programmatic interventions to reduce work exposures or limit hazardous work activities; and policy mechanisms to reduce the negative health impacts from working too many hours, night hours, or in settings that are too dangerous and inappropriate for youth under age 18. The issue also includes a resource list and photographs of children at work.

Sustainable Development Goal target 8.7 aims to eradicate child labour in all its forms by 2025. Ten years before this deadline, the objective is far from being achieved since in 2016, about one-in-ten children (152 million in total) aged 5 to 17 were engaged in child labour worldwide, many of them as unpaid family workers in agriculture. Nearly half of the children in child labour were in hazardous work and exposed to serious health and safety risks. Moreover, about one-third of children in child labour do not attend school at all; the others go to school, but not all the time. Children in child labour are more likely to leave school early, before grade completion, and underperform in school tests.This paper reviews child labour trends, and the literature on its causes and consequences. It also discusses policies to combat child labour based on the lessons of the available evidence. Countries must combat child labour by addressing it from all its “demand” and “supply” side dimensions: by strengthening social protection to combat extreme poverty, by investing in the education to make it an affordable alternative to child labour, and by encouraging the diffusion of technologies that make it possible to do without child labour. While most countries have adopted laws that prohibit child labour, the paper argues that countries can do more to enforce these laws and regulations, where necessary strengthen labour inspections and monitoring systems, and promote responsible business practices.