Understanding and overcoming challenges for the inclusion of learners with autism spectrum disorder in South African mainstream classrooms

Absenteeism is a significant issue in South African education, particularly among marginalized communities in rural and impoverished areas. Despite policy efforts to improve access to education, learners in these regions face challenges that limit their regular attendance and participation. This paper explores the cultural and socio-economic factors that contribute to absenteeism, with a focus on language barriers, traditional gender roles, and poverty. The use of English as the main language of instruction alienates learners who speak indigenous languages, leading to disengagement and persistent absenteeism. Traditional gender roles in rural areas often prioritize household duties and income-generating tasks over education, disproportionately affecting girls. Socio-economic issues, such as poverty, lack of transportation, and inadequate educational resources, further worsen absenteeism. Grounded in Paulo Freire’s theory of Critical Pedagogy, this paper emphasizes the need for culturally sensitive strategies to address absenteeism and promote educational equity. Through a qualitative approach, involving semi-structured interviews with learners, teachers, and community leaders, the paper seeks to uncover the underlying cultural and socio-economic factors that contribute to absenteeism. The findings aim to provide effective solutions to reduce absenteeism and improve educational outcomes for marginalized learners in South Africa, helping to break the cycle of poverty and inequality. The paper recommended that culturally sensitive educational policies and community-based interventions be implemented to reduce absenteeism and improve educational access for marginalized learners in rural South Africa. Keywords: Absenteeism; Educational equity; Socio-economic barriers; Cultural barriers; Marginalised learners.

This study examined the associations between teachers' beliefs and behaviors related to inclusive education (IE) and their evaluations of social and academic competences in students with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) - important indicators of IE. Utilizing the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB), the research investigated how teachers' intentions to implement IE and their supportive practices affected the social and academic competences of students with ASD. The study involved 267 teachers from 78 mainstream secondary schools in Hong Kong. Teachers completed a questionnaire assessing attitudes, subjective norms, perceived behavioral control, and intention to implement IE. Information on teachers' practices supporting students with ASD and their evaluations of social and academic competences of these students was also collected. Structural equation modeling (SEM) was used to analyze the relationships between these variables. Correlation analysis revealed positive and significant associations between teachers' beliefs, inclusive practices, and their evaluations of social and academic competences of students with ASD. SEM indicated that perceived behavioral control significantly and positively influenced the social and academic competences of students with ASD through teachers' inclusive practices. This study highlights the vital role of teachers' control beliefs and inclusive practices in fostering the social and academic competences of students with ASD. By applying the TPB and SEM, the research contributes to understanding how teachers' intentions and behaviors in implementing IE impact students' outcomes. The findings offer practical implications for enhancing inclusive education practices for supporting students with ASD in mainstream schools.

Most analyses of oral reading fluency (ORF) are based on L1 reading, and the norms that have been developed in English are based on first language reading data. This is problematic for developing countries where many children are learning in English as a second language. The aim of the present study is to model the relationship between English reading fluency and comprehension among rural English-second-language learners (ESL) in South Africa. We use data collected in 2013 by the National Education and Evaluation Development Unit in South Africa. This survey tested 4697 Grade 5 students from 214 schools across rural areas in South Africa. A sub-sample—1772 students—were selected for an ORF test. For these students there exist data on both reading comprehension and reading fluency. Although a number of studies have analyzed the relationship between fluency and comprehension, none have been conducted on a large-scale for ESL learners in a developing country such as South Africa. The present research contributes to the literature by analysing the size, significance and uniformity of this relationship for ESL learners in South Africa. Preliminary findings indicate a threshold at 70 words-read-correct-per-minute which is lower than the typically used threshold of 90 words-read-correct-per-minute of English first language readers.

The chapter presents challenges which limit the preparation of students with disabilities for learning in higher education, in rural schooling in the South African context. A lot of research has revealed that while there has been increased access into higher education by learners with disabilities, there is a gap in which students with disabilities fail to cope in terms of learning and consequently do not succeed. However, little is known about the challenges confronted in the preparation of learners with disabilities to be able to learn in higher education, in rural schooling in the context of Africa broadly, and in the South African context specifically. Data were collected through scanning South African literature on low resourced rural contexts of schooling. Selected texts were synthesised and analysed, using specific theoretical concepts from Critical Disability Theory. The findings revealed that rural schooling in South Africa is still limited in terms of preparing learners with disabilities to cope in learning in higher education. There are complex contextual factors resulting from social and economic disadvantages such as extreme poverty, perpetual poor service delivery, lack of resources and materials, poor infrastructure, large classes, mental health issues, poor nutrition, and unemployment that limit the preparation for all disadvantaged students. However, there are specific challenges that have an impact on learners with disabilities. These are lack of training on inclusive education on the part of teachers, lack of knowledge on disability, out of school experiences, and cultural beliefs on disability, which result in exclusion, hence lack of preparedness to learn in higher education by learners with disabilities. The argument for the chapter is that learners with disabilities have the same potential to cope in learning in higher education and succeed as students without disabilities if there could be adequate preparation in terms of learning to learn from schooling. It is hoped that the chapter will contribute to the complex debate of understanding rurality as well as specific challenges for learners with disabilities in the context of rural schooling in Africa broadly, and the South African experience specifically.

Background: Neurodiversity encompasses variations in brain function and development, influencing how individuals experience and interact with the world. While neurotypical individuals follow conventional neurological patterns, neurodivergent learners require tailored educational approaches. This study examines the right to education for neurodivergent learners in South Africa, proposing an inclusive framework to meet their specific needs. Aim: Using the United Nations (UN) principles of availability, accessibility, acceptability and adaptability, the study explores neurodiversity within the South African education system. Setting: A review of journal articles (2020–2025) provided insights into definitions of neurodiversity, its educational significance and South African legislative recognition. Methods: The study employs an integrative review approach, synthesising qualitative and quantitative data to address key questions about inclusive education. Results: Findings reveal substantial gaps in the education system, including inadequate data, inconsistent terminology, limited learner participation and resource shortages, despite legislative backing. These barriers highlight the need for systemic reform. Conclusion: To enhance inclusivity, the study underscores the importance of comprehensive data collection, policy involvement by neurodivergent learners and adequate resources. A flexible curriculum and targeted teacher training are essential for effective policy implementation. Contribution: Drawing on Lev Vygotsky’s social constructivism theory, the study advocates adaptable teaching methods, assessments and materials to promote equity. These measures will help improve employability and educational outcomes for neurodivergent learners.

Improving the Process of Inclusive Education in Children with ASD in Mainstream Schools

Background: Despite inclusive education (IE) policies and legislation being introduced in South Africa (SA), learners with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) are still placed in autism-specific public and private schools. Limited data are available on who makes use of the two different types of schools. Results may provide information on the profiles and education of learners with ASD in Gauteng schools. Aim: A quantitative, cross-sectional, comparative research design was used to compare the profiles of autism-specific public with autism-specific private schools and learners in Gauteng Province. Setting: The research was conducted in two autism-specific public and two private schools. Methods: Two survey questionnaires were used to collect data from four principals of two autism-specific public and two autism-specific private schools and 150 caregivers of learners attending the participating schools. Results: Results showed that because of their size autism-specific public schools make a significant contribution to the education of learners with ASD in Gauteng, compared to autism-specific private schools. Autism-specific public schools offer more therapy services than the autism-specific private schools, despite lower fees than autism-specific private schools. Significantly more black learners attend autism-specific public schools than autism-specific private schools. Regardless of the differences in population groups across the participating schools, the mean age when caregivers became concerned about their child’s development was similar across the two types of schools. Learners enrolled at the autism-specific private schools were diagnosed with ASD earlier than learners enrolled at the autism-specific public schools. Also, they commenced school earlier than the learners in the autism-specific public schools. Lastly, three of the four principals expressed a preference that learners with ASD be placed in autism-specific schools. Conclusion: The results highlight the need to raise awareness of ASD symptoms among parents with young children in all communities and to determine the barriers that hinder IE for learners with ASD in SA.

In response to the multiple and often contradictory demands on higher education, increased attention is being given to service learning (SL) in South Africa. This article reviews the debate regarding the desirability of theory for SL and considers the need for locally-grounded theory. Grounded theory is advocated as a research method which appears well-suited to the diversity which characterises SL. Based upon a constructivist paradigm of knowledge creation and employing primarily qualitative methodologies, grounded theory comprises concepts, categories and propositions which emerge from, and are verified through the experiences of the multiple stakeholders in SL. Although analysis is not structured by existing theoretical frameworks, a preliminary literature review is recommended to locate potentially relevant literature and to sensitise the researcher to themes which may surface in the study. The article concludes with such a review of the sources and nature of the literature and research, particularly that emanating from the South African higher education sector.

Camera, 208 Capitalism, scepticism of policies on education in future based on society with influx of, 42 Carnegie Learning, 251-252 Central government, 92 Challenges to inclusion, 84-85 Change of practice concept, 253 Character qualities of sets in twenty-first century, 25-33 communicative competencies, 28-31 digital competencies, 31-33 'grit' for inclusive and special education teachers, 27-28 high self-efficacy, 25-27 Children, rights and characteristics of, 4-5 Children with disabilities in rural areas in Telangana state, providing services to, 174-177 259 Children with special needs in VUCA world, preparation for education administrators to manage education for, 241-244 Chlorpyrifos, 64-65 City local government, 93-99 Civil rights, 39-40 Classic economic liberal theory, 41-42 Classrooms with assistive technology, improving efficiency of, 250-252 Climate change, 64-65 Collaboration, 180 Collaborative learning, 23-24 Communication, 180 channels, 29-30 disabilities, 211 Communicative competencies, 28-31 Community resource persons (CRPs), 175 Competency-based education, 23-24 Complexity, 80-81 Comprehensive teaching strategies, 236 Computer-assisted tools, 128 Constitution of the Republic of Indonesia (1945), 89-90 Constructive Alignment model, 21 Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD), 159 Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC), 158-159 Conversations, feedback and recognition (CFR), 225 Core educational subjects, 179 COVID-19, 18-19, 118-119, 123-124 crisis, 7-8 inclusive learning for students with special needs during, 108-110 learning experiences during, 114-116 learning experiences of KU

The imperatives for lifelong learning in South Africa are driven by its reinsertion into the global economy and by the social and political necessities of equity and redress after the years of colonialism, segregation and apartheid. It is therefore not surprising to find the discourse of lifelong learning infused into new policy documents. Utilizing Belanger's framework, which argues that lifelong learning is not a norm to prescribe but an empirical reality to analyze and reconstruct, the contexts for lifelong learning in South Africa are surveyed by focusing in on the state of initial education, adult education, and the learning environments. The framework, which acknowledges the daily lived realities of women and men, is a helpful way of retaining an holistic and integrated vision of lifelong learning and its humanistic, democratic goals. For lifelong learning in South Africa to deepen for more than a small group of well-educated, mainly urban, formally employed people, the author concludes that initial education, adult education and the learning environments of all the people will have to be improved. If this does not happen, then at least two polarized 'lifelong educations' will result.

The onset of the South African democratic government in 1994 brought remarkable changes in the entire education due to the introduction of an inclusive education system. This study argues that although the implementation of inclusive education is currently mandatory, the world over its effectiveness in South Africa is not yet established. The study aimed to explore teachers’ perceptions of the effectiveness of implementing inclusive education in their mainstream schools. The study used a phenomenological qualitative research design. In-depth semi-structured interviews were used to collect the data. Ten (10) teachers from five (5) mainstream secondary schools were purposively selected based on their years of teaching experience, knowledge about inclusive education, and relevant qualifications. The data gathered through interviews were analysed using qualitative content analysis. The analysed data came up with three themes: 1) Inclusive education policy implementation, 2) Inclusive teaching and learning strategies, and 3) Intervention by the Department of Education. Findings point to teachers’ lack of self-efficacy, inadequate support from district-based support teams, and challenges in supporting learners with disabilities. The study recommends in-service training and ongoing professional development for all mainstream teachers, provision of adequate resources, equipment, and assistive devices for learners with disabilities, and inclusive education policy implementation. This study contributes to knowledge of the challenges faced by teachers in their attempts to implement inclusive education and to support learners with and without disabilities in mainstream schools.

The literature review focused on the inclusion of children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) in educational contexts, particularly within English language instruction. The analysis revealed that international studies highlighted both the barriers and the opportunities linked to inclusive practices. Evidence from Iran demonstrated that structural and cultural limitations often prevented children with ASD from participating in mainstream schools, confining them to specialized institutions. However, parents and headteachers expressed openness to inclusive approaches when adequate teacher training and resources were available. Other investigations emphasized the challenges of second language acquisition among children with ASD. These studies showed that, despite difficulties in communication, organization, and social interaction, ASD learners were capable of acquiring vocabulary and grammar when instruction was systematic, structured, and adapted to their strengths. Research also noted that bilingualism could enhance cognitive and linguistic abilities, placing ASD students at an advantage under appropriate pedagogical strategies.Theoretical contributions from Asperger’s early work, diagnostic frameworks such as DSM-IV and DSM-5, and Gardner’s theory of Multiple Intelligences provided conceptual tools to understand the heterogeneity of learners. These perspectives reinforced the idea that ASD students could benefit from flexible methodologies that respected their unique learning profiles. In conclusion, the review demonstrated that inclusive education for ASD children was feasible and beneficial when grounded in frameworks like Universal Design for Learning (UDL). Successful implementation depended on teacher preparation, curricular adaptation, and broader social commitment, turning inclusion into both an educational necessity and a collective responsibility.

There has been an international movement towards inclusion and consequently an increasing number of children with Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASDs) attend mainstream schools. In recent years there has been a growth in cross-sectional research that seeks to understand the experiences of students with ASD in mainstream schools. This research indicates that students often experience bullying, a lack of understanding from teachers and peers and frequent suspensions and exclusions. To date there has been little research to explore the participation of students with ASD in mainstream school over time. There is a need to understand participation in mainstream school as a process over time that changes in response to the complex interplay of the individual and their environment. This will inform the development of strategies to better facilitate their participation across primary and secondary school. This thesis aims to develop an understanding of participation in mainstream school over time from the perspective of students with ASD and their parents. The study uses a qualitative methodology and is underpinned by Life Course Theory, which recognises the dynamic interaction of individual and contextual factors and processes on life experiences. To investigate perspectives and experiences of participation in mainstream school semi-structured interviews were conducted with eight students with ASD aged 12-15 years and 11 parents. Parents were interviewed on two occasions and students were interviewed once, generating a total of 26 interviews. Retrospective interviews with parents were conducted to elicit their perspectives about their children’s educational participation across primary and secondary school and their experiences of supporting their children’s participation over time. Student interviews captured a snapshot of their perspectives on their current participation in mainstream schools. Thematic analysis of the interview data was undertaken and concepts from Life Course Theory were applied to the data to enable a deeper understanding of the themes of participation in mainstream school across the schooling years. The findings of the study indicate that the majority of parents perceived that their children had restricted participation in mainstream schools and their educational trajectories were characterised by disruption. A minority had relatively stable academic participation trajectories, but still had difficulties with social participation. Furthermore, students experienced academic mismatch and standing out in mainstream schools. Parents universally experienced a perpetual battle to support their children’s participation in mainstream schools over time. Parents and students actively tried to influence their participation but most perceived they had little control over their participation in mainstream schools. This indicated that the school environment had a significant and constraining 2 influence on their participation. This thesis makes a contribution to knowledge about the participation of students with ASD in mainstream school by incorporating the perspective of students with ASD and their parents and more so, by considering participation across schooling years as a whole. It also makes a contribution to methodological knowledge about doing inclusive research with young people with ASD. A number of policy and practice recommendations are made, including the need for mainstream schools to accept greater responsibility for accommodating each individual student with ASD, and to encourage more meaningful involvement of parents and students in educational planning in order to improve their participation.

The last decade has seen a groundswell of developments in educational policy in the UK relating to inclusive education for students with special educational needs (SEN). However, whether government policy has been fully implemented in schools remains a concern. The experience of students with autistic spectrum disorders (ASDs) provides an excellent case in point. An increasing number of such students are now educated in mainstream schools, but the limited research in this area has indicated that their experience of school is often marked by bullying, social isolation and anxiety. In light of this, the aim of the current study was to examine the extent to which inclusive educational policy was actually reflected in the practices of four mainstream secondary schools. An exploratory case study approach was adopted, utilising interviews with pupils, teachers, other school staff (e.g., senior managers, learning support assistants) and parents, observations of lessons and other contexts (e.g., lunch time), and document analysis. Our findings highlighted a number of school practices which acted as facilitators or barriers to students’ learning and participation, some of which were generic to SEN provision, and some of which appeared to be specific to those on the autistic spectrum. A discussion of these is presented to enable further understanding of, and inform practice relating to, the inclusion process for students with ASDs.

Education is one of the most topical issues in South Africa. In recent years, particularly in the period after the adoption of the UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (2006) (hereinafter CRPD), the discourse on the education of children with disabilities has mainly focused on the potential of White Paper 6 on Special Needs Education (2001) (hereinafter WP 6) and its implementing programmes to facilitate the realisation of the right to education for children with disabilities. The CRPD proposes inclusive education as the appropriate way of ensuring the right to education for children with disabilities, and sets out a framework for the implementation thereof. In addition, the CRPD sets out other principles which essentially redefine the approach to the interpretation and implementation of the rights of persons with disabilities. One such principle is the principle of non-discrimination, which demands that all rights be implemented on a basis of equality between all people, disability notwithstanding. Arguably, the legal and policy frameworks on education in South Africa reflect the standards proposed under the CRPD to some extent, and other instruments on the right to education. However, there are still considerable challenges in the conceptualisation and implementation of inclusive education, especially at the basic education level. These challenges are not unique to South Africa, and are mainly attributable to the evolutionary background of the concept of inclusive education at the international level. Hence for instance, the understanding of inclusive education often tends to focus exclusively on the education of persons with disabilities as opposed to the inclusion of all marginalised and excluded groups. This narrow understanding is replicated in South African law, policy, and practice of education. Challenges to the realisation of inclusive basic education in South Africa are compounded further by the pertinent issues underlying the implementation of basic education in South Africa such as the question of equality in education, the financing of basic education, the nature of the states duties pertaining to the provision of basic education, and the interpretation of the notion of basic education. The understanding of inclusive education in South Africa has also been impacted by historical factors, such as the apartheid exclusion of the masses from mainstream basic education, and the subsequent need to "include" everyone in post-apartheid education. All of these factors point to the need to interrogate the current approaches to inclusive basic education in South Africa as against the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996 (hereafter the Constitution), and international standards that South Africa has committed to through the ratification of the CRPD and the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989) (hereafter the CRC). For instance, there is a need to establish the extent to which the differentiated obligations with respect to basic education as distinct from other levels of education apply to inclusive education. Hence, is there a difference between the nature of the states obligations in respect of "basic education" and those relative to "inclusive basic education"? Further, it is imperative to establish the convergence or divergence between inclusive education as set out in the CRPD and as implemented through WP 6.