Underestimating Learning by Doing
Many economic decisions, such as whether to invest in developing new skills, change professions, or purchase a technology, benefit from accurate estimation of skill acquisition. We examine the accuracy of such predictions by having study participants predict the speed at which they will master unfamiliar tasks. Across three studies involving two types of tasks and two levels of difficulty, we find systematic underestimation of learning, even after receiving feedback. In a fourth study, participants predicting others' performance showed significantly less underestimation, suggesting that projection bias—overreliance on immediate perceptions of effort and difficulty—may drive prediction errors. (JEL D83, J24)
- Research Article
231
- 10.1113/jphysiol.1992.sp019269
- Aug 1, 1992
- The Journal of Physiology
1. Our aim was to determine the influence of the type of task, the absolute and relative difficulty of the task, and the perceived stress associated with performance of the task on sympathetic circulatory regulation during cognitive challenge in humans. 2. Sympathetic nerve activity to skeletal muscle (MSNA) determined from peroneal microneurography, heart rate and arterial blood pressure were recorded continuously in twelve subjects during a modified Stroop colour word test (CWT) and mental arithmetic (MA), each performed over six levels of increasing absolute task difficulty. Performance (percentage correct) on each task was assessed and ratings of perceived stress obtained. Responses to CWT and MA were compared at similar levels of performance and perceived stress. 3. MSNA decreased at task onset, remained below baseline levels at low levels of difficulty which were not perceived as stressful, increased above baseline levels at higher levels of difficulty which were perceived as stressful, and increased further during recovery. Thus, the regulation of MSNA was stress dependent. At similar levels of stress perception there were no differences in MSNA between CWT and MA. Although performance declined as task difficulty increased, there was no particular 'threshold' level of performance associated with the stimulation of MSNA. 4. Arterial pressure and heart rate were elevated above baseline levels throughout the mental tasks. Arterial pressure increased over the first 3-4 levels of each task and then plateaued whereas heart rate did not vary across increasing levels of task difficulty. Heart rate and arterial pressure responses to CWT were higher than those to MA. 5. These data demonstrate that during cognitive challenge the stimulation of MSNA is governed primarily by perceived stress which is dependent, in part, on the absolute level of task difficulty. In contrast, neither performance nor the type of cognitive task appear to be important determinants of MSNA. Arterial pressure is influenced by the task and level of difficulty. Heart rate is independent of task difficulty but may be task dependent.
- Conference Article
5
- 10.2514/6.2007-6896
- Jun 15, 2007
One of the first large research projects on human control behavior performed at Delft University of Technology is the work of Hosman and Van der Vaart. In their tracking experiment, Hosman and Van der Vaart investigated the influence of visual and vestibular motion cues on human control behavior in a situation similar to manual control of an aircraft. In these compensatory tracking tasks, subjects were asked to follow or counteract a signal presented on a central (foveal) display. The changes in performance and control behavior were investigated for the addition of peripheral visual and vestibular motion cues. Both disturbance and target following tasks were performed with exactly the same forcing function signal realization. This resulted in a target following and disturbance task which were both thought to be representative for manual control in actual flight, but yielded a significant difference in task difficultybetween both types of task. Because of this discrepancy in task difficulty, it is unsure to what extent the differences between the two types of tracking task observed by Hosman and Van der Vaart actually result from their inherent differences, or are caused by the different levels of task difficulty. This paper describes the results of a recent experiment, highly similar to the tracking experiment of Hosman and Van der Vaart, that was performed in the SIMONA Research Simulator at Delft University of Technology. The goal of this experiment was to measure the effect of different visual and vestibular motion cues on control behavior in compensatory target following and disturbance tasks of equal difficulty, thereby allowing for clear comparison of use of motion cues in both types of tasks. The results of this experiment indicate that the main trends in tracking performance and control behavior reported by Hosman and Van der Vaart for their target following and disturbance tasks can still be seen as representative for both types of classical compensatory tracking task.
- Research Article
4
- 10.13031/2013.36495
- Jan 1, 2011
- Journal of Agricultural Safety and Health
Agricultural spraying involves two major tasks: guiding a sprayer in response to a GPS navigation device, and simultaneous monitoring of rear-attached booms under various illumination and terrain difficulty levels. The aim of the present study was to investigate the effect of illumination, task difficulty, and task level on the mental workload of an individual operating an agricultural sprayer in response to a commercial GPS lightbar, and to explore the sensitivity of the NASA-TLX and SSWAT subjective rating scales in discriminating the subjective experienced workload under various task, illumination, and difficulty levels. Mental workload was measured using performance measures (lateral root mean square error and reaction time), physiological measures (0.1 Hz power of HRV, latency of the P300 component of event-related potential, and eye-glance behavior), and two subjective rating scales (NASA-TLX and SSWAT). Sixteen male university students participated in this experiment, and a fixed-base high-fidelity agricultural tractor simulator was used to create a simulated spraying task. All performance measures, the P300 latency, and subjective rating scales showed a common trend that mental workload increased with the change in illumination from day to night, with task difficulty from low to high, and with task type from single to dual. The 0.1 Hz power of HRV contradicted the performance measures. Eye-glance data showed that under night illumination, participants spent more time looking at the lightbar for guidance information. A similar trend was observed with the change in task type from single to dual. Both subjective rating scales showed a common trend of increasing mental workload with the change in illumination, difficulty, and task levels. However, the SSWAT scale was more sensitive than the NASA-TLX scale. With the change in illumination, difficulty, and task levels, participants spent more mental resources to meet the increased task demand; hence, the illumination, task difficulty, and task level affected the mental workload of an agricultural sprayer operator operating a sprayer in response to a GPS lightbar.
- Research Article
9
- 10.1080/13546805.2020.1798220
- Jul 3, 2020
- Cognitive Neuropsychiatry
Introduction: To explain motivational difficulties in schizophrenia (SZ), attention has focused on the reward system and effort-based decision-making deficits. However, according to motivational intensity theory (MIT), effort is not directly determined by reward but by task difficulty. Moreover, no studies have examined the effort perception in the SZ. Therefore, this cross-sectional study compared effort perception in SZ group with healthy controls. Method: Task difficulty was manipulated by increasing the distance covered (from 8 to 48 metres). Walking speed, perceptions of difficulty and effort were assessed for all difficulty levels. Clinical and bodyweight variables were recorded. Results: As postulated by MIT, perceived effort and difficulty increased with task difficulty in both groups. Perceived effort and difficulty were higher in the SZ group. Perceptions of effort were positively correlated with BMI in SZ, but not with clinical variables. Importantly, although SZ patients perceived the task as more effortful, walking speed was similar between groups. Conclusions: Taken together, these results suggested that individuals with SZ perceived more strongly the effort and the difficulty of the task but could mobilise more effort to complete it. This observation may explain in part the decrease in engaging in physical demanding activities in daily life in SZ.
- Research Article
47
- 10.1080/001401399185144
- Aug 1, 1999
- Ergonomics
An awkward and static work posture has been recognized as a risk factor for workrelated musculoskeletal problems. The objective of this study was to investigate some of the factors that can influence the posture adopted during work and in particular aspects of the task and how their influence is affected by work height. Three types of task were studied: a peg-hole assembly task, which was largely manual with very little visual component; a visual character identification task; and a combination of the two. Two levels of difficulty were included in each of the manual and visual elements. Postures of the head/neck, trunk and arm were recorded during performance of these tasks. The results showed that type and difficulty of task do influence the posture adopted, and that some of the postural responses (although complex) are predictable so that poor postures could be improved by adjusting task design in addition to workplace layout.
- Research Article
1
- 10.4995/rlyla.2015.2800
- Jul 2, 2015
- Revista de Lingüística y Lenguas Aplicadas
<p>A pesar de que los expertos en evaluación han estado investigando la relación que hay entre los diferentes tipos de tareas y su nivel de dificultad, aún resulta necesario continuar dicho proceso de análisis para poder tener una visión más exacta de las variables que inciden en dicha relación. En este artículo estudiamos los tres tipos de tareas más usadas en los diferentes modelos de pruebas orales (entrevista individual a partir de una foto, entrevista individual a partir de una tira cómica y un diálogo en parejas). Para hacer este estudio evaluamos a 244 alumnos de segundo de bachillerato pertenecientes a nueve centros escolares y con un nivel A2 de inglés. La variable que hemos querido analizar al contrastar los tres tipos de tareas es la de la cantidad y complejidad de la producción oral emitida, que se midió utilizando como referente el uso de conectores y utilizando los test estadísticos de homogeneidad y especificidad.</p>
- Research Article
1
- 10.22452/ajba.vol11no2.7
- Dec 24, 2018
- Asian Journal of Business and Accounting
Manuscript type: Research paper. Research aims: This study experimentally examines the relationship between relative performance information (RPI), goal setting and performance. Hypotheses are developed based on social comparison theory, goal setting theory and relevant prior studies. Design/Methodology/Approach: This study deploys multiple sessions of experiments with 110 undergraduate students as the participants. The two manipulated variables are the provision of RPI and the level of goal difficulty. Research findings: Results from the experiment indicate that the presence of RPI is positively associated with performance, and an attainable goal is associated with high goal commitment and eventually, higher performance. More importantly, this study finds an interaction between RPI and goal commitment, where the positive effect of RPI on performance is more pronounced in a condition where individual’s goal commitment is high. Theoretical contributions/Originality: This study contributes to the accounting literature by providing empirical evidence that the positive effect of RPI on performance can be enhanced to a greater degree by individual’s high commitment towards the assigned goal. Practitioner/Policy implications: This study has a practical implication by providing empirical evidence on how RPI and goal setting can be used strategically by firms to escalate employee’s performance. Research limitations/Implications: Limitations related to the types of RPI, goal levels and experiment task applied. Future studies may address these limitations and use a different type of task that is more closely associated with the current workplace situation. Keywords: Relative Performance Information, Goal Setting, Performance, Experimental ExaminationJEL Classification: M41
- Research Article
- 10.32528/ellite.v2i2.1513
- Dec 12, 2017
- ELLITE: Journal of English Language, Literature, and Teaching
Selection of task types in learning listening certainly affects the quality oflearners’ necessities. The seven types of tasks offered by Willis (2007) are oftennot simply applicable because different class characteristics always presentdifferent burdens in determining the right types of task. The goal of this studyis to describe learners’ prospect of task types in teaching listening skill at EFLclass for university students. A listening class consisting of thirty students whichhad experienced different task types in four years was chosen. To achieve theobjective, the researchers collected the data by observing the teaching learningprocess and interviewing both the teacher and the learners. The result of dataanalysis revealed that there were four types of task implemented in the listeningclass, those were; listing task, sharing personal experience task, comparingtask and creative task. The class used listing task by asking the learners tomention the information they have got from the short video. Comparing taskwas implemented by asking the learners to match the information betweenthe video and what they have got. In sharing personal task, the class askedthe learners about their personal experience that was related to the discussedmaterial. The last was creative task in that learners were to find their own videoabout the topic they have decided and asked the learners to present their videoin front of class by telling the audience about the content of the video. In short,the final end of employing task types is on helping learners grasp their learningprospects so in designing the task types the class has to stick to the objective ofthe task, the materials and level of difficulty and the learners’ capability.
- Research Article
55
- 10.1097/00005768-200205000-00021
- May 1, 2002
- Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise
The primary aim was to describe perceived exertion responses to different intensities of eccentric exercise in women and men. 42 adults (21 men and 21 women, 7 per condition) completed elbow extension exercises with a weight corresponding to 80%, 100%, or 120% of maximal voluntary concentric strength. Total work was equated by manipulating the number of repetitions in the 80% (N = 45), 100% (N = 36), and 120% (N = 30) conditions. A two-way ANOVA showed significant main effects for the intensity and sex factors. Perceived exertion ratings were strongly dependent on exercise intensity, and women reported lower RPEs than men. A separate three-way mixed model ANOVA that included a repetition factor showed that perceived exertion ratings increased similarly across the first 30 repetitions in all exercise conditions. Significant partial correlations were found between mean RPE during the eccentric exercise bout, and the mean intensity of delayed-onset muscle pain measured from 12- to 72-h postexercise after controlling for the relative exercise intensity (r12.3 = 0.28) or the maximum concentric strength of the elbow flexors (r12.3 = 0.33). 1) for both women and men, there is a positive association between the intensity of eccentric exercise performed with the elbow flexors and RPE; 2) perceived exertion ratings increase significantly then plateau when repeated eccentric muscle actions are performed at constant, submaximal absolute intensities; 3) women rate eccentric exercise performed at the same intensity (relativized to MVC-C) as being less effortful compared with men; and 4) RPE during eccentric exercise can account for a small but significant amount of variability in delayed-onset muscle pain after statistically controlling for differences in strength or relative intensity.
- Research Article
20
- 10.3389/fnins.2021.703139
- Nov 16, 2021
- Frontiers in Neuroscience
Mental workload (MWL) estimators based on ongoing electroencephalography (EEG) and event-related potentials (ERPs) have shown great potentials to build adaptive aiding systems for human–machine systems by estimating MWL in real time. However, extracting EEG features which are consistent in indicating MWL across different tasks is still one of the critical challenges. This study attempts to compare the cross-task consistency in indexing MWL variations between two commonly used EEG-based MWL indicators, power spectral density (PSD) of ongoing EEG and task-irrelevant auditory ERPs (tir-aERPs). The verbal N-back and the multi-attribute task battery (MATB), both with two difficulty levels, were employed in the experiment, along with task-irrelevant auditory probes. EEG was recorded from 17 subjects when they were performing the tasks. The tir-aERPs elicited by the auditory probes and the relative PSDs of ongoing EEG between two consecutive auditory probes were extracted and statistically analyzed to reveal the effects of MWL and task type. Discriminant analysis and support vector machine were employed to examine the generalization of tir-aERP and PSD features in indexing MWL variations across different tasks. The results showed that the amplitudes of tir-aERP components, N1, early P3a, late P3a, and the reorienting negativity, significantly decreased with the increasing MWL in both N-back and MATB. Task type had no obvious influence on the amplitudes and topological layout of the MWL-sensitive tir-aERP features. The relative PSDs in θ, α, and low β bands were also sensitive to MWL variations. However, the MWL-sensitive PSD features and their topological patterns were significantly affected by task type. The cross-task classification results based on tir-aERP features also significantly outperformed the PSD features. These results suggest that the tir-aERPs should be potentially more consistent MWL indicators across very different task types when compared to PSD. The current study may provide new insights to our understanding of the common and distinctive neuropsychological essences of MWL across different tasks.
- Research Article
- 10.26516/2304-1226.2021.35.22
- Jan 1, 2021
- The Bulletin of Irkutsk State University. Series Psychology
The purpose of the study was to test individual differences in sensory sensitivity while performing signal detection and signal discrimination tasks. A total of 98 subjects performed two cognitive style tests on flexibility and rigidity of cognitive control, and focusing and scanning control, as well as two psychophysical tasks on visual signal detection (“yes/no” method) and loudness discrimination (“same/different”), each including two difficulty levels. Task type and difficulty level were considered as stimulation factors, and cognitive styles were considered as individual differences factors. The effects of both cognitive styles along with the effect of their interaction were revealed. ‘Flexible’ subjects and ‘scanners’ showed higher sensitivity in signal detection compared to ‘rigid’ subjects and ‘focusers’, respectively. Whereas no between-group differences were found in the accuracy of signal discrimination. Thus, we revealed individual differences in sensitivity, driven by cognitive style characteristics on the one hand, and task type on the other.
- Research Article
- 10.5937/inovacije2304061s
- Jan 1, 2023
- Inovacije u nastavi
Enrolment exam for music schools is an important moment when a child potentially, in parallel with attending general education, starts attending specialized, music education. In this paper we are questioning the existing concept of evaluating rhythmic abilities within the entrance exam for music schools. This evaluation currently includes duplicating rhythmical patterns, performed through one of two tasks: first one involves clapping the beat while performing the rhythmical patterns vocally, using the neutral syllable and the second one includes duplicating rhythmical patterns only through clapping. Nevertheless, in pedagogical practice the choice between the two tasks is usually arbitrary, since it is assumed that the results on both types of tasks would be similar. Furthermore, the level of difficulty of the given patterns within the test is arbitrary, since the teachers are usually inventing them "in situ" for each child. All respondents are evaluated in the same way, regardless of their age (which usually varies from 6 to 8). The aim of this paper is to contribute to the potential improvement of the quality and fairness of the enrolment exam for all participants, through investigation of the possible differences in the results of the same participants on two types of tests and comparing the results between the tasks with different level of difficulty, between the three age groups of children and between the two genders. The research was carried out within both - elementary school and preschool facilities in Belgrade and the sample consisted of 278 children. The results revealed that participants were more successful in the first type of task. Statistically significant differences were found between participants of different gender in their achievement in favour of girls and also between participants of different age groups, in favour of the second graders. Pedagogical implications were defined, regarding (1) transformation of traditional testing procedures regarding evaluating children's rhythmical abilities within enrolment exams in Serbian music schools, as a base for optimal selection of children and indirectly, optimal results of the teaching process in music schools and (2) the content of teaching and activities in elementary schools and preschools in the field of rhythm.
- Research Article
- 10.1371/journal.pone.0274713
- Jun 27, 2023
- PLOS ONE
This study intends to determine whether similarities of the functioning of the cerebral cortex exist, modeled as a graph, during the execution of mathematical tasks and programming related tasks. The comparison is done using network parameters and during the development of computer programming tasks and the solution of first-order algebraic equations. For that purpose, electroencephalographic recordings (EEG) were made with a volunteer group of 16 students of systems engineering of Universidad del Norte in Colombia, while they were performing computer programming tasks and solving first-order algebraic equations with three levels of difficulty. Then, based on the Synchronization Likelihood method, graph models of functional cortical networks were developed, whose parameters of Small-Worldness (SWN), global(Eg) and local (El) efficiency were compared between both types of tasks. From this study, it can be highlighted, first, the novelty of studying cortical function during the solution of algebraic equations and during programming tasks; second, significant differences between both types of tasks observed only in the delta and theta bands. Likewise, the differences between simpler mathematical tasks with the other levels in both types of tasks; third, the Brodmann areas 21 and 42, associated with auditory sensory processing, can be considered as differentiating elements of programming tasks; as well as Brodmann area 8, during equation solving.
- Research Article
206
- 10.1016/j.biopsych.2007.02.019
- Jun 21, 2007
- Biological psychiatry
Frontal and Limbic Activation During Inhibitory Control Predicts Treatment Response in Major Depressive Disorder
- Book Chapter
- 10.1007/978-3-030-98404-5_38
- Jan 1, 2022
As the PC has emerged as a new video game platform since its rapid performance progress, the cross-platform compatibility has grown to prominence for developers and designers. Besides, the number of users who want to use their gamepads, which is the conventional input devices of video game consoles, has been gradually increasing. This study was designed to compare the performance and usability of two input devices, the gamepad and the keyboard-mouse setup, the traditional setup used by most PC users, by task type and difficulty level. The goal of this study is to explore the interface design guidelines for each device. In this study, we measured the reaction time for the performance and the perceived workload for usability. The results indicated that the keyboard-mouse setup showed higher performance than the gamepad in general, and that the difference by the difficulty level was intensified in the physical task group. However, this tendency was not found in the cognitive task group. The keyboard-mouse setup also showed lower mental demand and physical demand than the gamepad. This result suggests that designers should not require too many simultaneous inputs when designing interfaces for gamepads, and that users should understand the characteristics of each device, in order to choose the one appropriate for their intended goals.KeywordsHCIUser experienceHardware interfaceInput deviceGamepadKeyboard-mouse
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