Un indicador para evaluar la Complejidad Intrínseca en notación musical de la Práctica Común

The evolution of information technology has changed the use of music representation and notation in software applications, transforming and extending them from a simple visual coding model for music scores into a tool for modelling music for computer programs and electronic devices in general (e.g., keyboards), to support the exploitation of the multimedia characteristics lying behind music notation and representation. The MPEG Symbolic Music Representation (MPEG-SMR) is a new emerging standard for modelling music notation within the MPEG multimedia framework. MPEG-SMR provides an XML-based language to model most of the music notation in terms of the visual and audio aspects, as well as music score annotations. MPEG-SMR also provides a language to define the music score formatting rules, supporting personalisation for the score visual presentation, custom symbols and control visual rendering of the common notation symbols.

The evolution of information technology has changed the use of music representation and notation in software applications, transforming and extending them from a simple visual coding model for music scores into a tool for modelling music for computer programs and electronic devices in general (e.g., keyboards), to support the exploitation of the multimedia characteristics lying behind music notation and representation. The MPEG Symbolic Music Representation (MPEG-SMR) is a new emerging standard for modelling music notation within the MPEG multimedia framework. MPEG-SMR provides an XML-based language to model most of the music notation in terms of the visual and audio aspects, as well as music score annotations. MPEG-SMR also provides a language to define the music score formatting rules, supporting personalisation for the score visual presentation, custom symbols and control visual rendering of the common notation symbols.

The evolution of digital communication devices and formats has recently produced fundamental changes in the practical approach to music representation and notation, transforming them from a simple visual coding model for sheet music into a composite tool for modelling music in computer and multimedia applications in general. As a consequence, a multi-layer model of music representation is needed for several purposes in addition to sheet music production or visual display, such as audio rendering, entertainment, music analysis, database query, music performance coding, music distance learning, etc. The Symbolic Music Representation is a standard for modelling music notations, proposed inside the MPEG multimedia framework. Symbolic music representation generalizes the main music notation concepts to model the visual aspects of a music score, and audio information or annotations related to the music piece, allowing integration with other audiovisual elements by multimedia references. The Symbolic Music Representation standard overcomes the limitations of a widely accepted format like MIDI, which is in line with its main purpose to model music events whereas it reveals important limitations in producing audio and visual representations with satisfactory results.

Singing Democracy:Music and Politics in Jean-Jacques Rousseau's Thought Julia Simon Comment? Tous les intervalles de mon Clavecin sont altérés? ... Fi, le vilain instrument; ne m'en parlez plus.... Je veux chanter. —Anton Bemetzrieder, Leçons de Clavecin Democratic theory of the eighteenth century, and particularly Rousseau's, is suffused with the idealism and lack of pragmatism that make it both immensely compelling and extraordinarily frustrating. Conceived under the decaying edifice of the absolute monarchy, it strives toward perfection, offering theoretical formulations that often defy practical application. Yet this theory continues to inspire democratic practice and political debates even more than 200 years after its writing. In one passage of Du contrat social Rousseau asserts, "If there were a people of Gods, it would govern itself democratically. Such a perfect government is not suited to men."1 And yet the thrust of the work and the critical force of Rousseau's corpus encourage and challenge us to strive toward democracy, as impossible a goal as it may be for mere mortals. Alongside Rousseau's works in social and political theory lies another vast body of theoretical work in music. Rarely, if ever, are they read in tandem. Music in the eighteenth century suffers from many of the same difficulties that political theory does, especially the tendency toward a level of abstraction that defies practical application. Like the problem of democracy in the eighteenth century, music also presents the temptation of retreat into a world of abstract perfection based on mathematical certainty with little relation to practical reality. [End Page 433] Perhaps nowhere is the tension so acute between the ideal and the real in music as in the domain of tuning specifically, in keyboard tuning, and the question of tempering. So as in the political domain, there is a potentially wide gulf between music theory and music practice. If there is any hope of realizing democracy in the way that Rousseau understood it, an exploration of his music theory may provide the crucial bridge between theory and practice. Rousseau's theoretical work in music, and singing in particular, covers a number of distinct subject areas. First, his proposal for a new system of musical notation links directly to democratic impulses in his political and social theory. Second, the kinds of emotions that music stirs are related in Rousseau's thought to forms of expression that remain closer to their natural origins. Finally, Rousseau's preference for melody, as opposed to harmony, relates directly to his conception of the political sphere and specifically to the relationship between the general will and the workings of the body politic in a democracy. Unexpectedly, reading Rousseau's musical theory alongside his democratic theory produces a nuanced and moderate view of the social contract that deepens our understanding of the relationship between relative and absolute values in politics as well as in music and offers a model for practice. Musical Notation and Democracy A distinctly democratic impulse motivates the Projet concernant de nouveaux signes pour la musique for Rousseau's revision of the musical notation system is designed to increase accessibility to music. With characteristic rhetoric Rousseau introduces his project for "simplifying" musical notation with a short, to-the-point paragraph: "This project tends to make music easier to write down, easier to learn and much less diffuse."2 Following this statement of purpose, Rousseau relates, in a contrasting rhetorical style—replete with specialized vocabulary—the current state of affairs in musical notation: This quantity of lines, keys, transpositions, of sharps, flats, naturals, of simple and complex measures, of whole-notes, half-notes, quarter-notes, eighth-notes, sixteenth-notes, thirty-second notes, of rests, half-rests, quarter-rests, eighth-rests, sixteenth-rests, etc. gives a quantity of signs and combinations from which result two principle inconveniences: the first, to occupy too great a volume, and the second to overload the memory of schoolchildren in such a way that the ear being formed and the organs having acquired all the necessary facility long before one is [End Page 434] capable of singing from a book, it follows that the difficulty is more in the observation of rules than in the execution of...

Introduction: describing musical information. Sound related codes (1) - MIDI: MIDI extensions for musical notation (1) - noTAMIDI meta-events MIDI extensions for musical notation (2) - expressive MIDI MIDI extensions for musical notation (3) - MIDIPlus MIDI extensions for sound control - augmented MIDI. Sound-related codes (2) - other codes for representation and control: Sound music macro language the neXT scorefile the radio baton conductor score file. Musical notation codes (1) - DARMS: its dialects, and its uses the note-processor dialect the A-R dialect extensions for lute tablatures extensions for mensural notation. Musical notation codes (2) - other ASCH representations: common music notation MuTEX, musicTEXT, and musiXTEX Philip's music scribe score. Musical notation codes (3) - graphical-object descriptions: the LIME Tilia representation the nightingale notelist . Musical notation codes (4) - braille: Braille musical notation (1) - an overview Braille musical notation (2) - common signs. Codes for data management and analysis (1) - monophonic representations: the Essen associative code - a code for folksong analysis plain and easy code - a code for music bibliography. Codes for data management and analysis (2) - polyphonic representations: Humdrum and Kern - selective encoding MuseData - multipurpose representation. Representation of musical patterns and processes: encoding of compositional units a score--segmentation approach to representation. Interchange codes: HyTime and standard music description language - a document-description approach the notation interchange file format - a Windows-compliant approach standard music eXpression - interchange of common and Braille notation. Reflections: beyond codes - issues in musical representation afterword - guidelines for new codes.

The paper deals with optical music recognition (OMR) as a process of structured data processing applied to music notation. Granularity of OMR in both its aspects: data representation and data processing is especially emphasised in the paper. OMR is a challenge in intelligent computing technologies, especially in such fields as pattern recognition and knowledge representation and processing. Music notation is a language allowing for communication in music, one of most sophisticated field of human activity, and has a high level of complexity itself. On the one hand, music notation symbols vary in size and have complex shapes; they often touch and overlap each other. This feature makes the recognition of music symbols a very difficult and complicated task. On the other hand, music notation is a two dimensional language in which importance of geometrical and logical relations between its symbols may be compared to the importance of the symbols alone. Due to complexity of music nature and music notation, music representation, necessary to store and reuse recognised information, is also the key issue in music notation recognition and music processing. Both: the data representation and the data processing used in OMR is highly structured, granular rather than numeric. OMR technology fits paradigm of granular computing

The paper presents problems related to automated recognition of printed music notation. Music notation recognition is a challenging problem in both fields: pattern recognition and knowledge representation. Music notation symbols, though well characterized by their features, are arranged in elaborated way in real music notation, which makes recognition task very difficult and still open for new ideas. On the other hand, the aim of the system, i.e. application of acquired printed music into further processing requires special representation of music data. Due to complexity of music nature and music notation, music representation is one of the key issue in music notation recognition and music processing. The problems of pattern recognition and knowledge representation in context or music processing are discussed in this paper. MIDISCAN, the computer system for music notation recognition and music processing, is presented.© (1995) COPYRIGHT SPIE--The International Society for Optical Engineering. Downloading of the abstract is permitted for personal use only.

Indian classical music, including its two varieties, Carnatic and Hindustani music, has a rich music tradition and enjoys a wide audience from various parts of the world. The Carnatic music which is more popular in South India still continues to be uninfluenced by other music traditions and is one of the purest forms of Indian music. Like other music traditions, Carnatic music also has developed its musicography, out of which, a notation system called Sargam is most commonly practiced. This paper deals with development of a music representation or encoding system for the Sargam notation scheme which enables easy music notation storage, publishing, and retrieval using computers. This work follows a novel idea of developing a Unicode-based encoding logic and allows storage and easy retrieval of music notation files in a computer. As opposed to many existing music representation systems for western music notation, iSargam is the only music notation encoding system developed for Indian music notation.

Name: Suzanne Konings Main subject: Master of Music Theory Research coach: Lázsló Nemes Title of research: What's in a name? The relation between pitch notation, note names and sight singing in different forms of pitch notation and in different ways of approaching pitch notation Research questions: Are absolute note names necessary in sight singing, when reading pitch notation on the stave relatively? Mental process: one sees ‘do’ (a name that indicates a function) and thinks ‘F’ (indicating a pitch). Are relative note names necessary in sight singing, when reading pitch notation on the stave ‘absolute’? Mental process: one sees ‘F’ (a name that indicates a pitch) and thinks ‘do’ (indicating a function). Abstract: Sight singing is a part of almost every music theory curriculum in conservatoires. But one might ask oneself why lessons in sight singing are needed for students who can already read music notation? The answer usually is: to develop the aural imagination in relation to music notation. The way students have learned to read music notation in the first place did not develop this skill well enough then? Experiences in teaching made me think that we need functional note names (unique sound names) to be able to aurally understand pitch in staff notation, and that the absolute note names (unique pitch names) may be an instrumentally useful, but less effective step ‘in between’ in aural imagination. From existing literature and recorded tests with students performing special designed scores I hoped to learn more about connecting the inner hearing world to music notation in the most effective way. Biography Suzanne Konings studied music theory and musicology and has been the head of the music theory department in the Royal Conservatoire The Hague since 2004. From 2009 she has been specialising in teaching music according to the Kodály concept. Together with colleagues in and outside the conservatoire she is organising training programmes for teachers and musicians in elementary schools, music schools and higher music education. She teaches musicianship classes for students in the Royal Conservatoire and the National Youth Choir of the Netherlands.

The study is analyzed the Arts and the Humanities in the Han Lin and Na Ni editions textbook. The contents of music theory are investigated to refer to the contents of the new curriculum standards and divided into three categories what music notation (including terminology), the roll-call (including scales and musical alphabet), and the third of rhythm. To understand the usage of the new curriculum standards, it contrasted the new curriculum standards to compare the difference in two editions textbook. The conclusions are as follows: 1. There are 42 key points in the music theory content of the Han Lin edition version textbook. The percentage of total in the first music notation (including terminology), the roll-call (including scale, musical alphabet), and the third rhythm are 50%, 29%, and 21%, separately. 2. There are 42 key points in the music theory content of the Na Ni edition version textbook. The percentage of total in the first music notation (including terminology), the roll-call (including scale, musical alphabet), and the third rhythm are 36%, 36%, and 28%, separately. 3. The Han Lin version for the third grade to sixth grade has the same scope with the new curriculum standard, in addition there has the studying list that can be practice; and the Na Ni version for the fourth grade and the sixth grade of last semester have some discrepancies with the new curriculum standard, the Na Ni version has lesser content than new curriculum standard. 4. Two types of versions and the new curriculum standard are approximately same also has the new curriculum standard the scope, but the Na Ni version's order has the difference slightly, but the book also has their own characteristic, the creation and music appreciation's part makes the content even more rich and diverse; as for Han Lin version is almost the same as the new curriculum standard, arranging to develop in gradual way.

Reviewed by: Kiss Me, Kate: A Musical Play by Cole Porter Paul R. Laird Cole Porter. Kiss Me, Kate: A Musical Play. Book by Samuel and Bella Spewack; orchestrations by Robert Russell Bennett; additional orchestrations by Don Walker, Walter Paul, Robert H. Noeltner and Freddie Bretherton; incidental ballet music arranged by Genevieve Pitot; critical edition by David Charles Abell and Seann Alderking. New York & Los Angeles: The Cole Porter Musical & Literary Property Trusts, Warner/ Chappell Music; produced: Van Nuys, CA: Alfred Music, 2014. [Abbrevs. and sigla, p. v–vi; pref., p. vii–viii; musical notation and performance practice, p. ix–x; acknowledgements, p. x; production note, p. xi; cast [End Page 161] and scoring, p. xii; score, p. 1–626; appendix, p. 627–90; crit. report, p. 691–741; bibliog., p. 742. ISBN-10 1-4706-1954-7, ISBN-13 978-1-4706-1954-1. $200.] Full orchestral scores are so important in concert halls and opera houses that it seems almost incredible that they have remained nearly unknown for performances of Broadway musicals. Many shows include a pit orchestra with four or five reed players, four to six brass players, bowed strings, keyboard, guitar, harp, and percussion, not to mention voice parts, which amount to four or more lines in ensemble sections. A conductor of such a collection of performers would benefit from a full score. Once a Broadway musical becomes popular, with eight performances per week, the music director would hardly need a full score, but it would be beneficial during rehearsals and for subsequent conductors. Music directors who also work in opera find vexing the lack of full scores for Broadway musicals, and express frustration with the glorified piano-vocal scores filled with cues that pass as “conductor’s scores” for most musical theater works. Such incomplete renditions make shows difficult to rehearse, and the study of Broadway orchestration in any detail all but impossible—huge obstacles when considering how popular some shows are and how important the scholarly study of the musical theater has become. The lack of full orchestral scores in the musical theater is caused partly by the way that orchestrations are created, and the genre’s commercial nature. Few original Broadway shows begin the rehearsal period with a completed score. Songs change or disappear during the process, and new songs and dances get added as the creative team tries to decide what will provide the greatest thrill to the audience. By necessity, orchestration does not begin until most of the numbers have been written. In the case of West Side Story, for example, rehearsals took place between June and early August of 1957, and the show opened for its first out-of-town tryout in Washington, D.C., on 19 August. Leonard Bernstein and lyricist Stephen Sondheim wrote their final song, “Something’s Coming,” on 7 August. Bernstein supervised Sid Ramin and Irwin Kostal in the orchestration process during July and early August. Figures besides these three men had input into what the orchestrations would sound like, including Sondheim and director–choreographer Jerome Robbins, who made changes without the composer’s permission in arrangements that he heard from the pit. The orchestrations probably did not reach what might be considered a final form until just before the Washington premiere, and minor changes surely continued until the New York opening on 26 September. (For more information on the show’s orchestration, see Nigel Simeone, Leonard Bernstein: West Side Story, Landmarks in Music since 1950 [Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2009], 85–92.) The full scores that Ramin and Kostal wrote were nothing more than drafts from which parts were copied. The history of West Side Story is typical of what has transpired on Broadway through the decades. Many such efforts have been documented by Steven Suskin in The Sound of Broadway Music: A Book of Orchestrators and Orchestrations (New York: Oxford University Press, 2009), an important contribution. Another impediment to producing full scores for musical theater is the frugal process by which the industry makes shows available for licensed performances. Orchestral parts sent out for shows have tended to be copies of those played in the New York pit with the ubiquitous “conductor’s score,” described...

Traditional methods of learning solfeggio (music theory) generally do not take advantage of computer‐based support, meaning that, when learning individually, students cannot receive instantaneous feedback on their activities. The aim of this study is to examine the effectiveness of an interactive mobile application, mySolfeggio, for learning solfeggio. Using a mobile device, students can take advantage of visual, auditory and tactile modalities to recognise musical notes. Students can also practice and learn notation, rhythm and melody, for which the mobile application provides corrective feedback. To evaluate students’ perceptions of the mobile application and its effect on knowledge, we conducted an experiment with 42 students, from 9 to 13 years old. After learning a particular song during a regular lesson, one group of students practiced it individually with only the musical notation, while the other group used both the musical notation and the mobile application. The results of the experiment illustrated only a small effect on students’ performance in singing and tapping when using the mobile application. However, they demonstrated higher scores in terms of musical intervals and rhythmic accuracy when compared to students in the control group. The students did not find the use of the application difficult, thus allowing it to be used as a tool for improvement of their homework practice.

MUSIC, because many of its basic parameters are readily adaptable to computer description, is probably the area of the humanities best suited to computer-implemented research. However, a major obstacle to advancement in this field is the absence of a convenient method for transforming large amounts of music data into computer-usable form. Music researchers have attempted to solve this problem by developing alphanumeric languages in which to code music notation for computer input, e.g., the Ford-Columbia Music Representation (DARMS) of Stefan Bauer-Mengelberg. In addition to general languages, many researchers have devised their own special languages, tailored to their particular projects. Music-representational languages are convenient for the handling of music data in the computer. It is very laborious, however, to produce the representation of music data in such a language from the original score and to enter it into a computer, especially when large quantities of music data are to be used. Since translation from a sample of music notation to the alphanumeric code of a musicrepresentational language requires a significant amount of time and some skill, music researchers who have utilized a computer either have devoted a good deal of time to the coding of the music data or have used a small data base. Even when much time has been devoted to hand-

The focus of attention of this paper is a music notation application, the Expressive Notation Package or ENP, conceived by Mika Kuuskankare. We explore some important design issues, through examples dealing with user interface design, music representation, and semantics. Our applications relate closely to computer-assisted composition. In this paper we deal particularly with contemporary music notation. The notational examples, all of which are based on real contemporary scores, attempt to illustrate several important, and at times unusual, design decisions. All of these scores share a common underlying representation, a hierarchical model for music representation that aims for the combination of representational simplicity, notational flexibility, and extensibility. The ENP system aims to let composers make their own aesthetic decisions—including decisions affecting music notation.

The paper deals with granularity of knowledge representation. The subject is studied on the basis of representation of music notation. Music notation is a language allowing for communication in music, one of the most sophisticated field of human activity, and has high level of complexity itself. On one hand, music notation symbols vary in size and have complex shapes; they often touch and overlap each other. On the other hand, music notation is a two dimensional language in which importance of geometrical and logical relations between its symbols may be compared to the importance of the symbols alone. Thus, computer representation of music is the first and perhaps one of the set of most important issues in music processing and music software specifically. Music knowledge, despite that is complicated and flexible, is highly structured and seems to fit perfectly paradigm of granular knowledge structuring. Granularity of music data representation is especially emphasised.