TRANSLATION IN THE FACE OF CENSORSHIP AND SELFCENSORSHIP – THREE CASE STUDIES IN ALBANIAN TRANSLATIONS OF KEY TEXTS

Introduction: The Gender and Queer Politics of Translation: New Approaches

LIKE ALL CLASSICS, Don Quixote has certain power to incite terminological derangements: perspectivism for Leo Spitzer, extraspection for Americo Castro (28), triangular desire for Rene Girard (52), and heteroglot and internally dialogized novelistic discourse for Bakhtin (324). Nor are terms all theoretical; Dostoyevsky's Prince Myshkin The Idiot is Quixote reborn, and nympholeptic vocabulary of Lolita is decidedly quixotic: Humbert Humbert, a creature of infinite melancholy, with bubble of hot passion [his] loins and super-voluptuous flame permanently aglow [his] subtle spine (17), had been raised on Don Quixote and Les Miserables (10). In most familiar role, Don Quixote has inaugural status, convening novel as dialogue of genres (Fuentes 51), setting a precedent for unprecedented (Reed 92). With it, novel embarks on course as selfconscious genre (Alter), which its essence is to seek Form (Parlej 101). Marthe Robert sees it establishing basic novelistic formula: a compulsory content and an optional form (Origins 32; Roman 63: une forme indeterminee). Responding to this enigmatic duality, Maurice Blanchot finds Don Quixote an extravagance that puts literature on trial (Infinite 388). Leo Bersani takes it as prototype for novelists' ambivalent relation to disrupted desire (66)-a portent that Philippe Lacoue-Labarthe says gives us over to an infinite murmur (13). In what may amount to same thing, Charles-Augustin Sainte-Beuve called Don Quixote Bible of Humanity (Nabokov 7); Miguel de Unamuno urged mystical approach, in same way that Bible is usually interpreted (Life 3); and William Faulkner claimed that he reread Bible and Don Quixote on yearly basis (Levin, Gates 46). Thus, it is no wonder that Milan Kundera says the novelist need answer to no one but Cervantes (Art 144). And answer they have; Cervantine (or should they be quixotic?) novelists constitute an honor roll: Fielding, Smollett, Sterne, Diderot, Stendhal, Flaubert, Daudet,

This chapter seeks to contribute to a model for quantitative exploration of translated texts by adopting clustering techniques to search for patterns of comparability in a corpus of retranslations. Drawing on systemic-functional theory (Halliday & Matthiessen, 2004) as a framework for text analysis, it reports on an exploratory study aimed at investigating source – target text relations as computed through statistical methods for a manually annotated representative text sample. Annotation built on the analytical framework used for comparing source and target texts, which is based on categories of grammatical functions common to both source and target language systems. The corpus was compiled from ten translations of a source text -- a short story written in English by Katherine Mansfield -- into Spanish and Portuguese by different translators over a period of six decades. The texts were explored in terms of the ‘retranslation hypothesis’ (Berman 1990), whereby retranslations tend to be more source-oriented than first translations, orientation being established in our study on the basis of the distance between source and target text as computed through cluster analysis. The results obtained point to similarities between texts computed on the basis of categories ascribed to the lexicogrammatical choices made by each author within the grammatical systems analyzed. They also corroborate the findings of other researchers who have used other approaches and methodologies to probe the ‘retranslation hypothesis’, in that they confirmed the relative distance of a first translation from the source text, while they also showed varied degrees of proximity of retranslations to the source text, the former being in some cases further away from the latter than first translations.

This article is concerned with cultural differences that play a significant role in translation and the problems in translating culture-specific items. An important problem in cultural translation is that the cultural items to be translated do not exist in the culture of the target language and thus do not have a context of reference for the target reader. In the translation of texts from Turkish into French or from French into Turkish the translator faces the problems of translating between two different cultures. In this case what would be the best strategy for translation? How much of the cultural context can be transferred to the target language? How could the translator deal with the culture-specific references? This article analyses the problems in translating culture-specific items from Turkish into French .

Don Quixote's sophistry and wisdom

This thesis is a re-evaluation of Lin Shu (1852-1924) and his literary translations. Lin Shu is one of China’s most influential translators. He initiated modern literary translation in China, and his translations imported new ideas, literary concepts, styles and techniques from the West. These, in turn, influenced the emergence and development of modern Chinese literature. Nevertheless, Lin Shu and his translations have been belittled and even dismissed for various reasons over the years. The emergence and development of target/culture-oriented translation theories offer the possibility of re-assessing Lin Shu and his translations. The re-assessment of Lin Shu and his translations in this study is based on target/culture-oriented translation theories, which emerged in the 1970s. Target/culture-oriented translation theories focus on the mutual influence between a translation and its target culture, especially on the influence of a translation on the target culture and readers as a criterion for successful translation rather than examining whether the target text is faithful to the source text, as in the traditional linguistic approach. These target/culture-oriented theories can effectively explain the translational phenomenon of Lin Shu, as Lin Shu translated with the needs of the target culture and readers in mind. He attached great importance to the cultural function and influence of his translations during a period of historical transition in China. The criticisms of Lin Shu and his translations in China and elsewhere have largely been negative, often highlighting political issues - his endorsement of the constitutional Qing monarchy and his conservative attitude to the New Culture Movement - as well as his free translation method. Target/culture-oriented translation theories offer a framework for the re-assessment of Lin Shu and his translations that bypasses these narrow approaches. Adopting target/culture-oriented translation theories, this thesis examines Lin Shu’s translations in a trans-cultural context. Lin Shu based his translations on the needs for the Chinese culture and readers of that time, which was clearly embodied in his choice of, and response to, the originals works. The prefaces and postscripts that he wrote for his translations illustrate the new cultural and literary factors that Lin Shu introduced into China. In this respect, Lin Shu’s translation of La Dame aux Camelia is perhaps the most famous case study of his translation method. Through a comparative analysis of the Target Text (TT) and Source Text (ST), the thesis discusses the ‘truthfulness’ of Lin Shu’s translation, and stresses that ‘truthfulness’ lies in seeking poetic equivalence rather than formal equivalence between the target and source texts. We argue that poetic equivalence is similar to Nida’s principle of correspondence, but is beyond his dynamic equivalence. It lays special stress on literary or aesthetic equivalence. Poetic equivalence in Lin Shu’s translations relates to the stylistic expression in China’s literary language and is therefore intrinsic to sinicization. Lin Shu’s skill in classical Chinese is central to our notion of poetic equivalence. However, I argue that Lin Shu’s translation strategy is actually also beyond equivalence. It is primarily embodied in his constant adaptation of the original to the perceived needs of Chinese culture and the acceptability of his translations to Chinese readers. Adaptation includes omission, addition, alteration and abridgment. In terms of target/culture/reader-oriented translation theories, Lin Shu’s adaptations were acceptable in the cultural context of his time. In brief, this study clarifies Lin Shu’s contribution in introducing Western culture and literature into China. The study also stresses the cultural influence of Lin’s translations on modern Chinese culture and on later generation of Chinese writers and translators. This thesis concludes that Lin Shu played a role of utmost importance in the establishment and evolution of early-modern and modern Chinese translation, particularly of modern literary translation in China. Therefore, Lin Shu is the father of modern Chinese literary translation.

In translation, an equivalent communicative effect will be more difficult to attain, as the cultural distance between the receivers of the source and target text is greater. This may lead into what is termed as a problem of untranslatability. Cultural distance between the receivers of the source and the target text can cause some problems in translating. Sometimes is necessary to omit some features having a little or no textual relevance in a given source text. It means sacrificing less relevant textual details and maintaining more relevant ones to attain a maximum equivalent communicative effect. The paper discusses some issues related to the problems in translation, especially the phenomena that appear in the German translation from Indonesian and English expressions. Keywords: problem in translation, Indonesian translation, German translation

The original version of the Zambia national anthem was written in English and then translated into most of the 73 Zambian languages. This article looks at how the Zambia national anthem was translated from English into the local languages. However, due to many factors, we chose to limit our study to one language, namely Bemba, which is considered as the most widely spoken Lingua franca in Zambia. In this study, great emphasis has been placed on the various translation processes and strategies used to translate the Zambia national anthem from English into Bemba, in the light of the equivalence theory. The concept of equivalence has often been used to indicate that the source text and the target text share what a number of scholars refer to as “sameness” or similarity. Vinay and Darbelnet as cited by Munday [6] explain that equivalence applies to cases where languages describe the same situation by different stylistic or structural means. Translation is therefore perceived as a way of establishing a straight forward correspondence between individual words [14]. This article shows that various translation strategies were used to manage equivalence within the accepted proxies of optimum translation and weaker version translation. In other words, the equivalence levels between the source text (ST) and the target text (TT) were analysed. This work shows evidence of semantic and socio-cultural variance between the original English version of the Zambia national anthem and the translated Bemba version. It also highlights the fact that the translation of a number of lines are close to approximations of the original lyrics, while others have substantially been modified to communicate the message in the original version. The ingenuity and innovativeness shown by the translator(s) of the Zambian national anthem into Bemba encompass what Lederer [5] refers to as linguistic competence and world knowledge to grasp the sense of the source text and convey it to the target text. This article shows that equivalence between the source text and the target text can be established at different linguistic levels and using different techniques. Without equivalence, it would be difficult to consider any given translated text as a successful translation of the source text. In this study the translation from English into Bemba can be seen as the product of the translator’s choices.

Features of translation products provide evidence of translation processes. Apart from think-aloud protocols (TAPs) and the Translog approach that have been used for data elicitation and collection in process research, translation products have been shown to contain systematic features or traces that may as well shed some light on what happens during translation (Bell 1991; Mason 2002). This paper reports on a corpus-based study of the process of explicitation, which has been hypothesized as one of the features that distinguishes translated text (TT) from its source text (ST) as well as from non-translation (NT) in the target language (TL). A model of explicitation is proposed, focusing on its realization in relation to both ST and NT. While process research is usually associated with the investigation of what goes on in ST-TT conversion, explicitation through the subconscious use of optional linguistic elements (e.g. reporting that in English and 會[possibly] in Chinese) can only be observed in a comparable corpus that consists of TT and NT in the same language. The factors that motivate explicitation in the translation process are mainly inferred from a wide variety of genuine translations contained in a 1.8-million-word English-Chinese parallel corpus of popular science texts. As each ST in the corpus is accompanied by two Chinese TTs produced in Taiwan and China, respectively, it is relatively easy to determine whether a particular instance of explicitation should be treated as obligatory or optional-two main categories distinguished in the current proposed model. Variation in the use of the explicitation strategy is addressed in terms of three aspects: individual, institutional, and setting and readership.

Translation norms have an important place in descriptive translation theory and these norms concern not only the translated texts but also the society and culture to which the texts belong. Norms are related to the behaviour and choices of translators in the translation process and therefore determine translation decisions. The decisions taken in translation process as lexical choices and preferred translation strategies determine which of the translators will be closer to the source or target languages and cultures. Thus, it becomes clear which of the poles of adequacy or acceptability is closer to translated text. The concepts of 'adequacy and acceptability' have recently been associated with the concepts of ‘overt translation' and 'covert translation'. In overt translation, the translator’s choices are in accordance with the values of the source text and its culture and therefore the translation text is conveyed without changing the foreign-the cultural elements- given in the source text. In this context it can be claimed that the reader can obtain information about the source text culture. On the other hand, in covert translation, the cultural elements given in the source text are domesticated and presented to the reader with expressions familiar to the reader. In this context, the translator’s choices prioritize the reader and the values of target culture.
 This study aims to provide a descriptive analysis of the two translation versions of Jane Austen’s "Pride and Prejudice", in the light of Gideon Toury’s descriptive approach to the translation studies. Through making a comparative analysis between the source text and the two translation versions (target texts) via selecting sentences randomly from the source text and comparing them with the target texts in terms of lexical choice, revealing a comparative and objective analysis in terms of their equivalences is the main focus of this study without searching for translation errors in comparison to the source text. In order to present a descriptive analysis, Gideon Toury’s norms will be used as a guide and on a macro level, Toury’s equivalence theory; “adequacy or acceptability” and the terms overt and covert translation will be used for the comparison of the target texts in terms of word level.

SEER, 98, 1, JANUARY 2020 160 Bulgakov, Mikhail. Дон Кихот [Don Kikhot]: A Dramatic Adaptation. Edited by Margarita Marinova and Scott Pollard. Texts and Translations, 29. The Modern Language Association of America, New York, 2014. xliv + 132 pp. Notes. Selected bibliography. Suggestions for further reading. $13.00: £11.95 (paperback). Bulgakov, Mikhail. Don Quixote: A Dramatic Adaptation. Translated by Margarita Marinova. Texts and Translations, 29. Modern Language Association of America, New York, 2014. lvii + 115 pp. Notes. Selected bibliography. Suggestions for further reading. Note on the translation. $13.00: £11.95 (paperback). Bulgakov completed the first draft of his adaptation of Cervantes’s novel Don Quixote very rapidly, during a rare and very happy holiday in 1938. He had joined his wife Elena in the sleepy town of Lebedian´, Zamiatin’s home town, taking with him a copy of Cervantes in Spanish, dictionaries and a Russian translation. The play had been commissioned from him by the Vakhtangov Theatre in December 1937, as the most devastating year of the Terror drew to a close. Work on the play alternated that summer with the completion of the first full version of The Master and Margarita. Elena described his Don Kikhot as a historical play, alongside his biographical studies of Molière and Pushkin, in which he made use of the past in order to express his own attitude to the modern world. In other words, he took Cervantes’s comic masterpiece, and while celebrating its exuberant, farcical aspects, also invested it with accents which aligned it with his own current preoccupations. Not only is there a melancholic emphasis on the noble failure, the idealist who is frustrated from pursuing his aims by vulgar materialism, but this dreamer is a close relation to the artists in Bulgakov’s portrayals. In Bulgakov’s play Don Quixote eventually recognizes the real world again, and abandons the fantastical ideas he has cherished about Dulcinea and about his chivalric calling. Instead he prepares calmly for the onset of death, almost welcoming its embrace. Readers familiar with Bulgakov’s other male protagonists such as Khludov in Flight, Molière and the Master, will recognize this longing for oblivion and release from the cruelties of the world. The actor Nikolai Cherkasov commented in his memoirs that of all the interpretations of Don Quixote he had performed, Bulgakov’s was the most tragic. Margarita Marinova and Scott Pollard have presented Bulgakov’s work in a pair of volumes, the first containing the text in Russian, the second containing a new translation of the work into English by Marinova. They have drawn upon much of the available scholarship on Bulgakov, including the authoritative eight-volume Azbuka edition of Bulgakov’s works (2011–13). There the editor Viktor Losev proposes to readers a previously unpublished REVIEWS 161 version of the text, which he describes as the third draft of the work, swiftly completed in September 1938. However, Marinova and Pollard have made a choice of source for the Russian text which might seem surprising, using the old 1971 Prideaux Press version, based on the 1960s Soviet edition. Nevertheless — and despite their not going into much detail to account for it — their choice of version seems well justified. The earlier version favoured by Losev is indeed an authentic reflection of Bulgakov’s first polished draft. The later, December 1938 version has lost fifteen pages or so — but this does improve the momentum and tightness of the text, and the cuts seem to have been dictated largely by aesthetic considerations rather than political censorship. Elena herself commented to the theatre that Bulgakov would never have agreed to spoil his own text. The extensive ‘Introduction’ and ‘Notes’ appear in both volumes, slightly adapted in the latter case for an English-reading audience, and offer a history of approaches to Cervantes in Russia, an account of the writing and staging history of Bulgakov’s play and a helpful analysis of Bulgakov’s selective reinterpretation of the characters and themes in Cervantes, as well as a substantial bibliography. There are a few minor inaccuracies about Bulgakov’s biography. The English-language volume contains an additional ‘Note on the Translation’, in which Marinova offers interesting reflections on the specific freedoms...

The purpose of this study is to study, analyze, and describe the translational choices of the participants in the interest of categorizing their translation strategies and more importantly premised on Baker’s narrative theory which is to examine the possibility of participants’ resistance or faithful translation. The current study is premised on Baker’s (2007) theory of narrative in translation which posits that beyond translated texts is an embedded identity of the translator. The findings suggest that participants have four (4) types of translation - mistranslation, paraphrasing, literal translation, and beyond text translation. Of the four translation types, beyond text translation reveals mental attitudes, beliefs, and values of participants. There are observations in the processing of L2 text - (1) foreignizing English or L2 texts by coining words or phrases, using telegraphic texts and carabao English; (2) translating by using a popular spoken expression mostly understood in L1 than in L2; (3) projecting sensory image to describe an L1 item with unknown equivalent; (4) using wordy details often unnecessary; and (5) adding L2 text not found in the source text. Further this paper examines the translational choices of participants in terms of morphological content, translational meaning in L1 and L2, and the implications to pedagogy in language and literature. There are 38 university students who translated the short story (Bb. Phathupats, by Juan Crisostomo Soto) from Filipino to English. The short story has 34 paragraphs written in Kapampangan and in Filipino by Vidal and Nelmida (1996). The paper ends with insights underpinning the implications of translational choices to teaching language and literature.

The aim of this paper is to point out the gap between translator's approach to dialect translation, translation scholars' expectation and assessment of translation quality. As literary texts foregrounding dialectical language have posed unusual challenges for translators and translation scholars alike, potential problem of dialect translation lies in the difficulty of finding equivalent variation in the target language for authentic representation of its syntactic complexity. It is found that the translators' renderings of nonstandard morphosyntax often conform to the target language norms, and the representation of sociolinguistic peculiarities of individual characters and connotations of specific communicative situations is inevitably diminished. However, evaluation of the translator's performance is also predicated on the prescriptive notion that the intent of every literary translation is to strive for finding equivalents for the dialectal use represented in the source text. Such an evaluation standard manifests a huge discrepancy between the individual assessor's expectation and the translator's approach to dialect translation. Due to the dynamic and functional nature often embodied in the product of dialect translation, I suggest that equivalence-based assessment on a dialect-to-dialect basis cannot do justice to those translators who do not reproduce the dialect for the reasons of plausibility and accessibility or they do not have a dialect at their disposal. When dialect translation is evaluated, each translated text should be treated as valid and translation activity should be contextualized in relation to the pragmatic means which creates for each translation a particular purpose and aim.

This chapter outlines a methodology to complement discussions on the notion of equivalence in translation studies, employing eye-tracking to measure readers’ responses, before and after translation, to stylistic language varieties in a literary case study. This research is unique in that there has not, to date, been any research using eye-tracking approaches to study how people read language varieties such as dialects and, furthermore, eye-tracking has not previously been used in translation studies to measure and compare cognitive responses between the source and target texts. Scholars have commented on the “levelling effect” of translation when a literary dialect is encountered in the source text, a phenomenon that could significantly alter a reader’s experience of individual characters within a novel or a novel as a whole. The research reported in this chapter proposes a method to gauge the degree of equivalence in cognitive effects between source text and target text over marked stylistic varieties, in terms of how readers react at certain points in the text, as manifested through the eye-tracking data, as a means to ascertain the extent to which this levelling effect is present at selected points in the given case study. The experiment employs three study groups: one reading extracts from the original French text, another reading the original English translation, and a third reading a modified translation in which the language varieties have been largely neutralised. The experiment method is explained in full, together with the accompanying statistical methods of analysis, which provide the quantitative basis for judgements regarding the notion of cognitive equivalence in the translation of the case study text. This chapter therefore presents an innovative methodology which can be developed and employed in other similar studies on other forms of marked language in future.

MLR, I03.2, 2008 567 textualizing women and seek todeal with theunderstanding of the feminine handed down from the auctoritates and with the contradictions this issue had always created. UNIVERSIDAD COMPLUTENSE DE MADRID REBECA SANMARTIN BASTIDA Adventures inParadox: 'Don Quixote' and theWestern Tradition. By CHARLES D. PRESBERG. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press. 200I. x+ 250 pp. $23.95. ISBN 978-0-27I-02364-9. From the opening pages ofDon Quixote, Cervantes imitates the conventions of his toricalwriting in earlymodern Europe. In particular, he attributes to his narrator themethods of a historian: the investigation, evaluation, and comparison of different sources, for the purpose of compiling an accurate account of past events. The au thority for the veracity of this account shifts in the ninth chapter of Part i,when thenarrator discovers themanuscript of theArab historian Cide Hamete Benengeli. Cide Hamete's Arabic manuscript becomes the 'truehistory' ofDon Quixote, and thenarrator can draw the substance of his account from thisauthoritative source, or at least from the Spanish translation of it that amorisco has prepared forhim. The use of thismanuscript, however, is not without challenges. As the narrator himself concedes, the truthof a textby an Arab historian can be called into question, since conventional prejudice attributes toArabs a propensity for mendacity. In attributing his 'true' source to an unreliable historian, Cervantes offers us a variant on theclassical paradox of the lyingCretan, who exhorts us to reject hiswords since all his statements are false.This gesture can be linked to a general interest in the logic and rhetoric of paradox that can be traced through the textofDon Quixote. In Adventures inParadox Charles Presberg has undertaken the firstcomprehensive study ofparadox inCervantes's novel. He traces thehistory ofparadox inEuropean thought and literature,with particular attention to seminal texts in classical paradoxy and to Spanish authors whose works were known toCervantes, and examines the functions ofparadox inselected episodes fromboth parts ofDon Quixote. From his initialdefini tionof paradox as 'aparticular ifbroad species of artfuldiscourse', Presberg explores itsuses as 'a trope of thought, a structuring principle, or a rhetorical strategy that moves freelyand playfully across the boundaries that convention assigns to genres, modes, and intellectual disciplines' (p. 2). He discusses thevarious tropes and patterns that informCervantes's fiction,aswell as theeffectson the reader of a textthatpresents itself in large part as a series of paradoxical encounters. Such effects can be related to central issues inRenaissance poetics and to questions in the ethics of reading and interpretation. Since paradox often challenges conventional ways ofunderstanding, it invites readers to revisit and reconsider theirassumptions about the status of the text and the conduct of its characters. In Presberg's view, themanifold uses of paradox shape the textofDon Quixote and indicate the terms inwhich itshould be read. Presberg divides the body of his study into two parts. The firstsurveys the his toryof paradox in the Western tradition; the second discusses paradoxical reflections on fiction, imitation, and the invention of the self inDon Quixote. The historical survey begins with classical literature and philosophy (Plato, Petronius, Apuleius, Lucian) and ends with a substantial section on latemedieval and earlymodern Span ish authors (particularly Fernando de Rojas, Antonio de Guevara, and Pero Mexia). This history elucidates threekeymeanings. First, 'paradox denotes any assertion that runs contrary to [. . .] conventional understanding or received opinion' and 'elicits a response of shock or wonder, admiratio or "alienation" in the recipient' (p. 37). Second, itcan describe an apparent contradiction that encloses and makes known a hidden, surprising truth (p. 38). Third, itcan correspond in meaning to 'antinomy', a 568 Reviews proposition that involves an 'insoluble contradiction' that requires us to recognize its simultaneous truthand falsity (p. 39). Each of these definitions attests to the effects of paradoxical discourse indisplacing common categories and assumptions, inviting a stance of openness and reflection. Paradox presents truthnot through closure, but as a sustained and 'adventurous' quest (p. 39). The history of paradox also reveals the central place ofChristian thought in introducing 'a fullyparadoxical view of the world into Western consciousness' (p. 17). InNicolas ofCusa the concept of learned ignorance and thedoctrine of coincidentia oppositorum emphasize both the simultane ityof convergences and contraries in the phenomenal world and the limitations of the human mind in resolving this...