Translating Human Nature and Merit in Matteo Ricci's Tianzhu shiyi ( The True Meaning of the Lord of Heaven )

The objective of this paper is to provide a psychological perspective on Zhu Xi (ZX) and Dai Zhen (DZ) views about human nature, by comparing the potential implications of their views on an agent’s moral cultivation. To help frame this objective, I will ask and answer the following question: if one commits to ZX who holds the view that human nature is innately good, although obscured, versus if one holds DZ’s view that while human nature has the potential for good but it is unformed or unknown (i.e., no original nature) then what are some of the possible implications for self love, sympathy, hope, forgiveness, and spontaneity that are relevant considerations, some of which have been noted by ZX and DZ, for the advance of an agent’s moral cultivation.The implications of ZX’s commitment to human nature being innately good could entail the following: despite an agent’s obscurities, because his nature is good, he is lovable and he can be hopeful that he can shed off his obscurities via proper moral cultivation. Spontaneity is encouraged as an integral part of an agent’s moral self-cultivation. His self-responsibility, hinges on his ability to use the instrumentality of moral cultivation, for which he would need the assistance of a moral teacher. There is a greater capacity for forgiveness because of the presumption that the human nature is inherently good. He can sympathize and extend concern for others, in part, because others’ nature is also good. ZX’s view may potentially carry a risk of excess and a risk of expecting mainly the good, but not the unknown.Alternatively, implications for DZ’s commitment to no original human nature, entails the following: DZ’s view is likely more conducive to expecting and embracing the unknown, which potentially makes DZ’s philosophy more practical, because we live in a world where we often encounter unknowns and unfamiliar people. Self-love is a prerequisite to know love before one can love others. A moral agent can be hopeful because his potential is good, and it will not be a lost opportunity in light of the constitutive essence of moral cultivation. Despite DZ appearing to be against spontaneity, he is only against the kind of spontaneity that could be hurtful to others as does ZX. Lastly, I argue that DZ’s view could result in a broader and more practical commitment to sympathy. Compared to ZX, I argue that DZ’s view could have a potential risk of lower self-responsibility and risk of resistance to self-forgiveness, which does not arise out of DZ’s views about the human nature per se, but rather stems from DZ’s bias towards externalized morality.

In the contemporary debate over whether mindfulness-based programs need to incorporate explicit ethics or if there are already implicit ethics that obviate this obligation, rhetorical arguments present these two positions as polar extremes. What is generally missing from this discourse is awareness of how these two positions on human nature and ethical cultivation rehash historical debates with analogous positions within Buddhist contexts. I add a new comparison to the contemporary debates with historical Confucian debates on human nature and ethical cultivation that move beyond the two opposite views of innate human ethical goodness versus innate ethical blindness. I overview the positions of nine Chinese thinkers to show how the conversation on human nature and ethical cultivation can move beyond two positions along the axis of innate ethics and incorporate an axis of intellectual versus practical grasp of ethical cultivation. I argue that awareness of the broader historical debates concerning this issue can help illuminate contemporary positions. Finally, I suggest turning attention away from arguments about human nature and toward a more fruitful examination regarding if, and how, mindfulness-based programs may lead to ethical change.

Marx's theory of human nature has been frequently misinterpreted. Theorists argue that Marx saw human nature as fluid. Other theorists fail to see human nature's necessary connection to Marx's theory of alienation. The validity of Marx's theory of human nature, and alienation, are contingent upon a mutual acceptance. One cannot fully defend Marx's theory of alienation without accepting his theory of human nature, and vice versa. This necessary interconnection emerges from examination of Marx's trans-historical views on human nature, when compared critically with mainstream theories of Marxian human nature. The key to understanding Marx's theory of human nature entails a distinction between essence and essentialism, and their connection to a theory of expression. Marx is an essentialist in regard to human nature, but sees human essence as an ensemble of socio-historical relations. These particular relations shape human nature's expression.

Evolution of Human Nature As Consumer

ABSTRACTBy showing its organic linkage between theories of human nature and governance, this article illustrates that the Huainanzi is a scripture that holds a systematic and unique theory. The ideal governance of the Huainanzi is mystical transformation (shenhua 神化), i.e. the Daoist concept of non-action (wuweizhizhi, 無爲之治). Rule by simple Confucian rituals is not at odds with mystical transformation. However, mystical transformation does not include the rule by rituals. Moreover, excessively complicated rituals are incompatible with mystical transformation. Human nature in the Huainanzi does not contradict humanity and righteousness (renyi 仁義). Human nature’s growth into humanity and righteousness is as natural as the approach of a butterfly to flowers. However, the humanity and righteousness of the Huainanzi are not innate to human nature. Likewise, unlike a flower, a butterfly is not part of a plant. Moreover, artificial flowers, which correspond to excessively complicated rituals, are incompatible with human nature. The composition of theories of human nature and governance is similar. The organic correspondence between theories of rule and human nature demonstrates the organization and uniqueness of the Huainanzi.

This study aims to understand human nature in Daesoon Thought. In addition, it seeks to determine the characteristics of human nature and how the theory of human nature in Daesoon Thought relates to the direction of the Basic Works and the Three Major Societal Works of Daesoon Jinrihoe. In order to understand the theory of human nature in Daesoon Thought, I have classified various theories of human nature that appear in the Confucian tradition and have analyzed and reviewed them. I used this framework of types as a methodological criterion to study the theory of human nature found in Daesoon Thought. In Daesoon Thought, human nature is defined clearly as the conscience that is honest and truthful. Also, it accepts humans’ basic biological needs, the pursuit of clothing, food, and sexual desires as part of human nature. This view can be evaluated as quite similar, although not perfectly consistent, with the theory of human nature posited by Wang Fuzhi (王夫之), who defined human nature as a combination of morality and biological desires. The theory of human nature in Daesoon Thought emphasizes human morality, but at the same time, it fully accepts that biological needs are basic elements of human life. In addition, it shows a characteristic that strongly implies a religious tendency as it recognizes that human nature is internalized through divine commands issued by the Supreme God of the Ninth Heaven (九天上帝 Gucheon Sangje), the transcendent and absolute ruler. The Basic Works of Daesoon Jinrihoe, which are Propagation, Edification, and Cultivation, aim to restore human nature to its innate state of honesty and truthfulness. Among the Three Major Societal Works, we can see that the works of Social Welfare and Charity Aid are implemented in accordance with the accepting acknowledgment of basic human needs (the pursuit of clothing, food, and sexual desires), and helping people meet their needs in appropriate ways and to appropriate degrees.

Introduction. Social development is an objective condition for human development. Social development is a condition for each individual in society to develop. The freedom of each individual in society is the basis and driving force for creating each culture, community, and country. Materials and methods. The article uses a comprehensive and specific historical point of view of the materialist dialectical methodology. At the same time, the paper also uses analytical, synthesis, and interpretation research methods to clarify Marx about human nature and how the social human changed people's living conditions and changed people in both shape and knowledge. Human life activities, which are material production, have made individuals and social people have a dialectical relationship. Individuals and social people can encourage each other to develop together and make society more chaotic and distant. Production relations in society cause inequality and disparity between rich and poor. Research results. Summarizing Marx's theory of human nature, the paper has aspects of clarification analysis of Human Nature. First, human nature is a product of history and the subject of history. Second, human nature is nature and social characteristics; Therefore, it is necessary to educate comprehensive human development. Third, the development of each person is the development of everyone in society. Each country and individual has goals, policies, and orientations for the development of human nature. Therefore, each country and individual has plans, policies, and directions for the development of human nature. Human needs a wonderfully natural and social environment to promote their full potential. Nowadays, individuals in social people must be self-aware of existence and development by working in production to improve the natural and social environment. Today, Vietnam needs to educate the Vietnamese to develop comprehensively. The government needs to implement democracy in education. And it is necessary to inform the worker of the requirements of a globally integrated society with the development of science and technology. Vietnamese workers unite with workers worldwide to promote worker's rights in companies. Conclusion. This study allows arguing that Marx put forward the human mentioned in two aspects, human nature and social human. Marx clarified social humans in practical activities that changed human nature. For a comprehensive human overview, each country and individual needs to focus on health, intelligence, aesthetics, culture, capacity, quality, and morality and fight for freedom and democracy. Today, Marx's ideas about human are the basis for the education human nature. Marx pointed out the role of man as the master of society. Therefore, the future community is educational Vietnamese. The article is the basis for promoting the democratic rights and freedoms of people in a civilized and progressive society. Therefore, clarifying the role of educating Vietnamese people in the current process of national renewal. Keywords: human nature, individual person, social people, product of history, subject of history, Marx

War and Human Nature. By Stephen Peter Rosen. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2005. 211p. $29.95. Darwin and International Relations: On the Evolutionary Origins of War and Ethnic Conflict. By Bradley A. Thayer. Lexington: The University Press of Kentucky, 2004. 425p. $40.00. Any general theory of politics assumes a theory of human nature. A small but growing number of political scientists have been applying a Darwinian theory of human biological nature to various topics in political science. The final aim of such work would be to turn political science into a biopolitical science. These two books contribute to that end by showing how research in human biology and Darwinian theory can illuminate the study of international relations.

This article discusses the theme of moral cultivation in ancient China and proposes to consider the relevant philosophical discussions a subfield of traditional Chinese philosophy. We argue that Chinese classics throughout history were freighted with frameworks and concepts concerning moral cultivation, contributing to a philosophical system about people’s daily moral development. The metaphysical justification, the interpenetration of what is beyond form and what is within form, ideas about the heart-mind and human nature further substantiate the claim from academic and cultural perspectives. This philosophy echoes Pierre Hadot’s idea of “philosophy as a way of life”, or an art of living, a pragmatic discipline that is both a meta-philosophy and a methodological approach in addressing pedagogical and psychological concerns (Hadot & Davidson, 1995). The justifications warrant the needs of perceiving traditional moral cultivation philosophically and discussing its educational implications for today.

The third teachings of Confucianism, Buddhism, and Taoism have been coexisted and had effect on the oriental spirits for long times. The doctrines of the Confucianism, the Buddhism, and the Taoism are represented as ‘moral culture’, ‘practice’, and “training” respectively. The practices of three teachings had individual ways. But in the late Han-dynasty, they had coexisted and effects on one another, then finally had been united since the Song-dynasty. The Confucianism, which advocated “xiū-jǐ-zhì-rén(修己治人: Practising oneself and controlling others)” and “nèi-shèng-wài-wáng(內聖外王: Establishing natural law in oneself and presenting it to others)”, put an emphasis on the practice for personality by “Kŏgzĭ(孔子)” and “Mèngzĭ(孟子)”. For example, the practices of “Yăng qi(養氣)”, “Jìn Xīn(盡心)”, and “Cún Xīn(存心)” reflect this doctrines. In the Song-dynasty, “Zhū-xī(朱熹)” established the ‘New Confucianism’, the study of “Jū-Jìng-qióng-lĭ”, which put an equality with “human nature” and natural law. It is so-called as “Seong-li-hark” in Korea. Therefore, it came to life again by emphasizing ‘jīng-shì: Ruling the world’ and “moral culture”. The Taoism, which pursued “yán-mìng-cháng-shòu(延命長壽: Maintenance of a Scanty existence long life)” and “dào-tōng-shén-xian”(道通神仙: Spiritual awakening Shén-Xian), originally put an emphasis on the practice of body and mind. For example, “Lăozi(老子)” and “Zhuāngzĭ(莊子)” suggested “bāoyī(包一)”, “Shŏuyī(守一)”, and “Zuòwàng(坐忘)”. After the religious body of the Taoism had been established, “Gè-hóng(葛洪)” accomplished the “Nèidān(內丹)” and “Wàidān(外丹)” as practice methods. As times went over, the “Nèidān(內丹)” of “Yăng-Shēng-Wŭ-Dà-Yāo(養生五大要)” including “bì-gŭ(辟穀)”, “fú-qì(服氣)”, “dăo-yĭn(導引)”, “fáng-zhōng(房中)”, and “fú-ěr(服餌)”, has been the mainstreams for practice. Since the Song dynasty, “sān-jiào-hé-yī-sī-xiǎng(三敎合一思想: Three Teachings are the each other same thoughts)” had been put on emphasis and the three teachings were effected one another, and all of them attached importance to practical training. Therefore, the practice ways in civil societies have been mixed, the origins of them are difficult to divide definitely. The Korean society also has the vague origins of them and reflects the theses historic traditions.

During the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, a hundred schools of thought contended with each other, and each school of thought had its own different views on the study of human nature. Mencius based his polemic on the doctrines that do not conform to Confucianism, and put forward the theory of human nature on human nature is good to defend the status of Confucianism. In the course of his inheritance and development of Confucius' thoughts on human nature, Mencius put forward the theory of the inherent goodness of human nature, arguing that there exists a theory of the inherent goodness of human nature, which is a basic trait that distinguishes human beings from beasts and that the inherent goodness of human nature can only be maintained by constantly expanding human goodness. At the same time, Mencius further explains his view of human nature by saying that there are four ends of goodness: benevolence, righteousness, propriety, and wisdom. Through the viewpoint that human's original heart is easily lost, it proves the situation that the moral qualities of human being’s present differences among them. Mencius' theory of moral cultivation is mainly reflected in two aspects, which are to reflect on oneself, to stand on one's own feet, and to cultivate the righteousness of the spirit. In view of the far-reaching influence of Mencius' theory of human nature and morality, the research results of Chinese literature in the field related to Mencius' theory of human nature and morality are comprehensively examined over the years, and the research related to Mencius' theory of human nature and morality is visualized and analyzed. Through the research data, the function of Mencius' humanism in contemporary moral education is summarized.

Free Market Madness and Human Nature

Shen Congwen focuses on the idea that literature creation is rooted in human nature, expressing the root of Buddhist ideology while speaking about healthy and beautiful vitality about ‘overflowing vitality,’ ‘healthy human nature,’ and natural ‘life’ of human beings. In other words, Shen Congwen pursues human nature and beauty in human nature by describing the nature’s scene of omen in literature, creating literary values. Human nature is the starting point and cornerstone of the utopia that Shen Congwen tried to build, where creation begins. He also reflects Buddhist ideology and accommodates Buddhist stories by building his life philosophy based on the theory of human nature. Shen Congwen asserts life philosophy as the foundation for the theory of human nature by accepting Buddhism in a philosophical way, connoting the Buddhist spirit purusing freedom of mind in his literary world. In his novel 〈Moonlight Scenery〉, ‘holiness’ of life, thoughts about life and death issues, love, and beauty are affected by Buddhist ideology. The exploration of Buddhist ideology that appears in his works reveal how Shen Congwen perceives life. When he attempts to understand the essence of the human world, Buddhism allows him to gaze at holiness of life based on metaphysical speculation. Shen Congwen explores life through the comparison between the world of human nature and pathological world. He is an unusual author who tries to express human nature from the ethical aspect while inciting healthy human nature. His abstract love and alienation of beauty and secular reality allow him to reach thoughts about the most fundamental things in Buddhism, such as life and death, emptiness, eternity, and secular and sacred domains. In addition, due to the influence of Buddhist ideology, Shen Congwen perceives life philosophy that breaks away from all kinds of anguish and pursues the state of mental freedom. Such theory about the Buddhist mind and nature suggests human nature, which is the essence of life seen through Shen’s unique perspective.

Mengzi’s theory of human nature is one of the most fascinating narratives in traditional Chinese intellectual history. His arguments are ambitious, have moral power, and contains philosophical implications. Mengzi made use of metaphors and analogies such as water, plants, and dogs to illustrate his ideas and theory of human nature vividly. All of these helped him to compete with the ideas of others such as Gaozi and SHI Shuo. Many ideas of his still play an important role in the daily life of Chinese people, and billions of people use and sing slogans quoted from Mengzi without being aware of it. Different theories have also been developed based on Mengzi’s theory, such as “human nature is originally good” and “human nature tends toward goodness.” We will explore the philosophical and historical aspects of Mengzi’s theory of human nature. Kongzi (Confucius) did not say directly what human nature exactly is, and it was Mengzi who laid the milestone for the Confucian theory of human nature and henceforth provided a new horizon for the Chinese theory of human nature.

Feminist theorists divide on the question the notion of “human nature”: Some argue that progressive political demands need grounding in a theory of human nature, while others argue that there is no such thing as human nature, and that the notion has served historically to rationalize social hierarchy. This essay distinguishes different senses given to the term “human nature” and argues that there is such a thing as human nature in one of these senses (deriving from cognitive science). Human genotypes determine complex functions from environments to phenotypes (“norms of reaction”). Genetic similarities together with environmental regularities together ground provide empirical warrant for normatively important generalizations about human psychology. Such generalizations evade feminist and postmodernist objections to appeals to “human nature.” They do not support biological determinist views of gender, race, or social class, and they do not entail the erasure of difference. Understood this way, “human nature” provides a needed ground for liberatory politics.