Transferring between sports: the case of Icelandic youth sport

Overuse Injuries and Burnout in Youth Sports

Background:Sport specialization has been associated with increased risk of both acuteand chronic lower extremity musculoskeletal injuries in adolescent athletes.Repetitive movement through sport specialization has been hypothesized toincrease the stress through the lower extremity, leading to injury. However,the underlying mechanism is unclear.Purpose:The purpose of this study was to examine the differences in sagittal planelower extremity loading between adolescent athletes who participate in asingle sport (SS) verse those who participate multiple sports (MS).Methods:A cross sectional study design was used. A total 252 adolescent athletesparticipated in the study (Males: SS=26, Age=14.62±1.72, Ht=173.06±12.41 cm,Mass =62.47±14.72 Kg; MS=27, Age=13.52±1.72, Ht=171.61±11.20 cm, Mass=61.32±14.21 Kg Females: SS=127, Age=14.28±1.77, Ht=164.72±10.73 cm, Mass=58.29±11.17 Kg, MS=84, Age=13.62±1.41, Ht=163.22±7.67 cm, Mass =57.63±11.44Kg). Participants were included if they were between the ages of 10 and 17,involved in high-risk sports for equal or greater than 50 hours per year,and reported no injuries in the 3 months prior to participation in thestudy. Joint moments of the hip, knee, and ankle were assessed at initialcontact (IC) during a jump-landing (JL) task in both the dominant andnon-dominant limbs. All values were normalized to the product of height andweight and averaged across three trials. Participants were grouped into SSor MS groups, then sub-grouped by gender. Separate independent t-tests wereperformed on each dependent variable for the dominant and non-dominant limbsin males and females to examine the differences between the groups (SS vsMS) (α = 0.05).Results:In the female cohort, the SS group demonstrated lesser knee flexion momentscompared to the MS group on dominant side (SS=0.022 HtWt-1,MS=0.026 HtWt-1; p=0.012). The female SS group also demonstratedlesser hip extension moments (SS=0.031HtWt-1, MS=0.042HtWt-1; p=0.022) and knee flexion moments on non-dominantside compared to that of the MS group (SS=0.023HtWt-1, MS=0.027HtWt-1; p=0.013). There were no significant differencesobserved in any of the variables in male adolescents.Conclusion:Altered sagittal plane biomechanics were observed in female adolescents, butnot in male adolescents during a JL task. The MS group had greater loadingat the hip and knee joints than the SS group. Since MS has been suggested toincrease the risk of lower extremity injuries, this biomechanical pattern atIC of a JL may be a profile for higher risk of lower extremity injuries.(394/400)Table 1.Sagittal plane moment at initial contact during jump-landingtask.Single sport (SS)Multiple sports (MS)p-valueAdolescent malesDominantHip0.037±0.0400.038±0.0400.094Knee0.028±0.0150.027±0.0150.096Ankle0.0001±0.0007-0.0001±0.0010.741Non-DominantHip0.036±0.0400.041±0.0280.061Knee0.026±0.0170.028±0.0120.611Ankle-0.0002±0.0006-0.0002±0.00120.915Adolescent femalesDominantHip0.029±0.0340.038±0.0320.057Knee0.022±0.0130.026±0.0120.012*Ankle0.088±0.0210.092±0.0210.14Non-DominantHip0.031±0.0340.042±0.0320.022*Knee0.023±0.0120.028±0.0120.013*Ankle-0.0004±0.0008-0.0002±0.00180.279* indicates significant difference between the groups.

Competing predominately in one sport instead of multiple sports has become increasingly prevalent in young athletes. However, there is a lack of data focused on female athletes who compete exclusively in one sport. We hypothesized that female athletes who selectively train in a single sport (SS) have higher rates of injury, body image concerns, and menstrual dysfunction compared to female athletes who play multiple sports (MS). Retrospective data was collected from a pre-physical questionnaire distributed among female athletes from five local high schools (n=611; 13-18 years of age). Odds ratios, 95% confidence intervals (CI), and effect size were calculated to investigate the association between SS training and injuries, irregular menses, and body image concerns (a priori p< 0.05). SS training was not associated with higher rates of injury (p=0.48) and were less likely to have a history of stress fractures compared to MS athletes (p=0.03). There was a decrease in the number of menstrual cycles within the last 12 months among SS athletes (p=0.02, d=0.34). Exclusively competing in a single sport is not associated with higher injury rates in female high school athletes but is associated with dissatisfaction with one’s weight.

BACKGROUND Sleep duration and sport specialization have been shown to affect injury profile in young athletes. The interplay between training hours per week, and, multiple versus single sports participation on sleep hours in young athletes is unknown. Purpose/Objective To investigate associations between single sport participation and training volume, with sleep hours, in pediatric and adolescent athletes. METHODS Study design: Cross-sectional epidemiological study was conducted using electronic questionnaire data from an injury prevention evaluation (IPE) at a sports injury prevention center affiliated with a tertiary level pediatric medical center between April 2013 and February 2018. Data analysis included sports participation, previous injury history, training regimen, and sleeping habits. For each sport selected, athletes were asked about average number of practice hours for each sport and number of seasons training for the sport during the year. All athletes aged 11-18 years were included in the study. Main outcome measures include sleep duration, single sport, and training hours/seasons. Single sport athletes were defined as those athletes who listed participation in only one sport year-round. Binary measures were created to indicate 1)any participant that listed practicing > 10 hour/week for any sport during a season and 2) any participant that trains three or more seasons for any sport in which they participate. Multivariate regression models (M1, M2, M3) were created for soccer athletes to control for sport training differences while testing the independent effect of gender, age and sport training. Based on the results univariate linear regression of hours of sleep was stratified by age and gender and regressed by self-reported hours of practice per week, identification as single sport athlete, training three or more seasons for soccer. RESULTS There were 756 athletes, 11-18 years old, included (mean age 13.5±2.5 years; 56% female (N=426)). For female athletes, figure skating (46%, 11/24), dance (42%, 28/67), and gymnastics (25%, 12/47) lead the list for single sport athletes. In comparison, for male athletes, swimming (26%, 5/19), tennis (19%, 5/26) and soccer (13%, 16/120) lead the list. The overwhelming majority of gymnasts, dancers, and figure skaters (88% (38/43), 83% (54/66) and 83%, (20/24)) train = 3 seasons of the year. In comparison, for male athletes, tennis athletes (62%, 16/25) seem to train = 3 seasons of the year followed by soccer (41%, 49/119) and swimming (39%, 7/18). (Tables 1 and 2) Table 3 presents multivariate linear regression coefficient of weeknight hours slept by practice hours, gender, age and sport characteristics for soccer participants using three different models (M1, M2, M3). Younger athletes, ages 11-14 years, slept nearly an hour more than participants aged 15-18 years across all training types. Only female soccer athletes training = 3 seasons slept significantly less (ß -0.24, SE 0.12, 95%) than their male counterparts. Participants that practiced soccer > 10 hours/week slept significantly, and substantively, less than their peers practicing =3 or less hours/week (ß -0.61, SE 0.17, 95%). Table 4 presents all participants and sport type stratified by age and sex. Practicing more than 10 hours/week was significant in males ages 11-14 years. Middle school aged males, practicing > 10 hours/week for any sport in which they participate over the course of the year, slept over half an hour less than their peers that practiced fewer hours (ß -0.65, SE 0.2, 95%). CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE Training volume appears to affect sleep in young athletes. Middle school male athletes practicing greater than 10 hours/week appear to sleep less than their peers. Anticipatory guidance surrounding training may help to improve sleep hygiene in pediatric and adolescent athletes. [Table: see text][Table: see text][Table: see text][Table: see text]

Over the past 15 years, there has been an increase in youth sports participation with a concomitant increase in early year-round training in a single sport. Many factors contribute to the desire of parents and coaches to encourage early single sport specialization, including the desire to give the young athlete an edge in competition, pursuit of scholarships, and potential professional status, and the ability to label a young athlete as elite at an early age. Despite these perceived advantages, some data suggest that early sport specialization does not lead to a competitive advantage over athletes who participate in multiple sports. Although the data are limited, there is some evidence that early sport specialization may put the young athlete at risk for overuse injuries. The focus of this review is to highlight the evidence regarding early sport specialization and risk for injury; discuss the risk factors for overuse injury in high-risk sports including ice hockey, swimming, gymnastics, and baseball; and discuss future potential research that would help define the risk of injury for young athletes who participate in early sport specialization.

Context:There is increased growth in sports participation across the globe. Sports specialization patterns, which include year-round training, participation on multiple teams of the same sport, and focused participation in a single sport at a young age, are at high levels. The need for this type of early specialized training in young athletes is currently under debate.Evidence Acquisition:Nonsystematic review.Study Design:Clinical review.Level of Evidence:Level 4.Conclusion:Sports specialization is defined as year-round training (greater than 8 months per year), choosing a single main sport, and/or quitting all other sports to focus on 1 sport. Specialized training in young athletes has risks of injury and burnout, while the degree of specialization is positively correlated with increased serious overuse injury risk. Risk factors for injury in young athletes who specialize in a single sport include year-round single-sport training, participation in more competition, decreased age-appropriate play, and involvement in individual sports that require the early development of technical skills. Adults involved in instruction of youth sports may also put young athletes at risk for injury by encouraging increased intensity in organized practices and competition rather than self-directed unstructured free play.Strength-of-Recommendation Taxonomy (SORT):C.


 AbstractThe aim of the research is to expound the impact of the distributed training method used by an experimental group and the method used in the school by a control group on motor building learning for the purpose of selecting from a number of team and individual games for students of the first intermediate grade. The researchers used the experimental method appropriate to the nature of the study, and the population of the study consisted of (232) students of the first intermediate grade in the Al-Shumookh Intermediate School for Boys in Nineveh Governorate. The study sample consisted of (30) students, representing (12.93%) of the population of the study and were randomly distributed into two (15) students experimental and control groups. The researcher adopted a questionnaire form, personal interviews, and scientific tests, measurements observation as means of collecting information. Parity between the four study groups was done for each of the variables (age, height, mass, some mental abilities, i.e. (attention and intelligence) and some physical and motor factors that affect motor building learning of a number of team and individual games in addition to some football skills and some athletics activities (under study). The school educational curriculum (Physical Education Teacher Guide for Intermediate Grades) was implemented by the control group while the distributed training method was implemented by the experimental group. The two training programs consisted of (36) educational units, (18) for each group, two educational units per week, and the time of each educational unit was (45) minutes. the researchers reached a number conclusions, the most important of which is that the educational program of distributed training method and the control group program (the school method) positively impacted the motor building learning of a number of team and individual games among first-grade intermediate students.In selecting between games, triple and complex motor building in team games was superior for those in individual games .In selecting between motor building types, complex motor building was superior to dual and triple motor building in team games, while dual motor building was superior to triple motor building in individual games among first-grade intermediate students,
 

Background: Anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) revision cohorts continually report lower outcome scores on validated knee questionnaires than primary ACL cohorts at similar time points after surgery. It is unclear how these outcomes are associated with physical activity after physician clearance for return to recreational or competitive sports after ACL revision surgery. Hypotheses: Participants who return to either multiple sports or a singular sport after revision ACL surgery will report decreased knee symptoms, increased activity level, and improved knee function as measured by validated patient-reported outcome measures (PROMs) and compared with no sports participation. Multisport participation as compared with singular sport participation will result in similar increased PROMs and activity level. Study Design: Cross-sectional study; Level of evidence, 3. Methods: A total of 1205 patients who underwent revision ACL reconstruction were enrolled by 83 surgeons at 52 clinical sites. At the time of revision, baseline data collected included the following: demographics, surgical characteristics, previous knee treatment and PROMs, the International Knee Documentation Committee (IKDC) questionnaire, Marx activity score, Knee injury and Osteoarthritis Outcome Score (KOOS), and the Western Ontario and McMaster Universities Osteoarthritis Index (WOMAC). A series of multivariate regression models were used to evaluate the association of IKDC, KOOS, WOMAC, and Marx Activity Rating Scale scores at 2 years after revision surgery by sports participation category, controlling for known significant covariates. Results: Two-year follow-up was obtained on 82% (986 of 1205) of the original cohort. Patients who reported not participating in sports after revision surgery had lower median PROMs both at baseline and at 2 years as compared with patients who participated in either a single sport or multiple sports. Significant differences were found in the change of scores among groups on the IKDC (P < .0001), KOOS-Symptoms (P = .01), KOOS–Sports and Recreation (P = .04), and KOOS–Quality of Life (P < .0001). Patients with no sports participation were 2.0 to 5.7 times more likely than multiple-sport participants to report significantly lower PROMs, depending on the specific outcome measure assessed, and 1.8 to 3.8 times more likely than single-sport participants (except for WOMAC-Stiffness, P = .18), after controlling for known covariates. Conclusion: Participation in either a single sport or multiple sports in the 2 years after ACL revision surgery was found to be significantly associated with higher PROMs across multiple validated self-reported assessment tools. During follow-up appointments, surgeons should continue to expect that patients who report returning to physical activity after surgery will self-report better functional outcomes, regardless of baseline activity levels.

Background: Athletes who specialize in their sport at an early age may be at risk for burnout, overuse injury, and reduced attainment of elite status. Timing of sport specialization has not been studied in elite basketball athletes. Hypothesis: National Basketball Association (NBA) players who played multiple sports during adolescence would be less likely to experience injury and would have higher participation rates in terms of games played and career length compared with single-sport athletes. Study Design: Descriptive epidemiology study. Methods: First-round draft picks from 2008 to 2015 in the NBA were included in the study. From publically available records from the internet, the following data were collected for each athlete: participation in high school sports, major injuries sustained in the NBA, percentage of games played in the NBA, and whether the athlete was still active in the NBA. Athletes who participated in sports in addition to basketball during high school were defined as multisport athletes and were compared with athletes who participated only in basketball in high school. Results: Two hundred thirty-seven athletes were included in the study, of which 36 (15%) were multisport athletes and 201 (85%) were single-sport athletes in high school. The multisport cohort played in a statistically significantly greater percentage of total games (78.4% vs 72.8%; P < .001). Participants in the multisport cohort were less likely to sustain a major injury during their career (25% vs 43%, P = .03). Finally, a greater percentage of the multisport athletes were active in the league at time of data acquisition, indicating increased longevity in the NBA (94% vs 81.1%; P = .03). Conclusion: While a minority of professional basketball athletes participated in multiple sports in high school, those who were multisport athletes participated in more games, experienced fewer major injuries, and had longer careers than those who participated in a single sport. Further research is needed to determine the reasons behind these differences.

Early single-sport specialization and the relative age effect are often cited as improving the chances of sport success. Both concepts suggest that genetics and the environment have little influence on sport success. To compare National Collegiate Athletic Association Division I student-athletes (SAs) with their undergraduate nonathlete peers (NAs) in terms of birth month, age of sport initiation, and age of single-sport specialization. A family history of sport participation was examined as a potential marker for genetic and social influences. Cross-sectional survey. Large urban university. A total of 273 Division I SAs (138 women, 135 men) and 155 NAs (78 women, 77 men) participated. The NAs had been involved in competitive youth sports before entering the university. Participants were asked to complete a questionnaire that addressed the age of sport initiation, birth month, age of single-sport specialization, and parental and sibling sport achievement. Neither birth month nor the age of sport initiation differed between groups (age of sport initiation = 7.16 ± 2.6 years for the SAs versus 7.71 ± 3.5 for the NAs; P = .176). A larger proportion of SAs began participating before 10 years of age (80% versus 63%; P = .02). The parents of SAs were more likely to have participated in collegiate (32.4% versus 8.4%; P < .0001) and professional (10.9% versus 1.3%; P = .0005) sports. The SAs specialized in a single sport at an older age (15.38 ± 2.7 years versus 14.30 ± 2.6 years; P = .002). Both groups participated in multiple sports in childhood (SAs = 3.9 ± 1.8 sports, NAs = 3.2 ± 1.8 sports; P = .366). The Division I SAs did not specialize in a single sport at a younger age than the NAs. No evidence of a relative age effect was present. Importantly, higher levels of sport achievement among the parents and siblings of SAs suggest that genetic endowment and family or other environmental dynamics play a large role in athletic performance. Overall, the results are not consistent with deliberate practice theory and point toward an alternative model that includes not only sport-specific skill development but also genetic and social factors as key elements of long-term sport achievement.

We sought to examine the associations between sports participation and physical fitness in younger Americans. The analytic sample included 1108 Americans aged 6-15 years. Muscular fitness assessments included handgrip strength, leg extension strength, and plank position. Cardiorespiratory fitness was examined with graded treadmill tests. Youth participating in any sports had increased physical fitness performance for each marker: 1.63 kg (CI: 0.91-2.35) for handgrip strength, 6.23 kg (CI: 3.15-9.32) for leg extension strength, 9.41 lbs. (CI: 4.51-14.31) for plank position held, and 3.02 mL/kg/min (CI: 1.23-4.80) for estimated maximal oxygen uptake. Participants engaging in a single sport had increased performance for most fitness markers: 1.52 kg (CI: 0.67-2.38) for handgrip strength, 5.16 kg (CI: 1.50-8.82) for leg extension strength, 5.98 s (CI: 0.17-11.78) for plank position held, and 2.67 mL/kg/min (CI: 0.58-4.77) for estimated maximal oxygen uptake. Youth engaging in multiple sports exhibited even steeper trends: 1.77 kg (CI: 0.83-2.70) for handgrip strength, 7.63 kg (CI: 3.62-11.65) for leg extension strength, 13.89 s (CI: 7.52-20.27) for plank position held, and 3.50 mL/kg/min (CI: 1.15-5.85) for estimated maximal oxygen uptake. Any sports participation, including single and multiple sports, is linked to increased physical fitness in American youth.

The aim of this study is to find out the significant differences among the players of individual and team sports, on the variable achievement motivation and locus of control. A group of three hundred and fifty (N=350) male players of individual and team sports, aged between 20 to 25 years were purposively selected for this study. They were further divided into two groups: A (individual game) and B (team game). It was hypothesized that there may not be significant differences with regard to achievement motivation and locus of control among individual and team game players. The significance between-group differences were assessed using the student’s t-test for dependent data. The level of p < .05 was considered significant. Significance between group differences were found among the players of individual and team sports on the variable achievement motivation whereas no significance between group differences were found among the players of individual and team sports on the variable locus of control. Considering the various parameters as applied on different sets of subjects the results prove to be variant in nature and scope in relation to achievement motivation whereas results prove to be identical in respect to locus of control. Key words: Achievement motivation, locus of control, individual sport, team sport.

The motivation for youth sport involvement may differ for single-sport (non-specialists), multi-sport, and single-sport specialized athletes. PURPOSE: To investigate differences between adolescent single-sport athletes (SSA), multi-sport athletes (MSA), and single-sport specialized athletes (SSSA) on measures of sports enjoyment and motivation. A secondary aim was to compare these variables between age groups. METHODS: Adolescent sport participants in 6th, 7th, and 8th grade (n=306, age=13.0±1.0 yrs) completing the Sources of Enjoyment in Youth Sports Questionnaire (SEYSQ) that assesses sport enjoyment in the subscales of self-referenced competency (SRC), other-referenced competency and recognition (ORCR), effort expenditure (EE), competitive excitement (CE), affiliation with peers (AP), and positive parental involvement (PPI). The particpants also reported their age, gender, grade, years of sport participation and sport status (SSA, MSA, SSSA). RESULTS: SSSA reported significantly more enjoyment in all subscales except PPI when compared to SSA (p<0.05; ES 0.4 - 0.99). MSA and SSSA showed significant differences in the subscales of SRC and EE; however, effect size was small (0.37 and 0.33, respectively). Overall scores for intrinsic and extrinsic motivation were significantly lower among SSA compared to MSA and SSSA (p<0.01) with no differences between MSA and SSSA (p>0.05). Results revealed no significant differences in the SEYSQ 's subscales for age (p>0.05). CONCLUSION: Within the parameters of this study, adolescents that specialize in a single sport or those who compete in multiple sports both rely on intrinsic and extrinsic sources of enjoyment for motivation in very similar ways; whereas adolescent SSA are less motivated and experience less enjoyment from sport participation compared to MSA and SSSA. Key Words Adolescent Enjoyment SEYSQ

The motivation for youth sport involvement may differ for single-sport (non-specialists), multi-sport, and single-sport specialized athletes. To investigate differences between adolescent single-sport athletes (NSSA), multi-sport athletes (MSA), and single-sport specialized athletes (SSSA) on measures of sport enjoyment and motivation. A secondary aim was to compare these variables between age groups. Adolescent sport participants in 6th, 7th, and 8th grade from the Western United States (n=306, age=13.0±1.0 yrs) completing the Sources of Enjoyment in Youth Sport Questionnaire (SEYSQ) that assesses sport enjoyment in the subscales of self-referenced competency (SRC), other-referenced competency and recognition (ORCR), effort expenditure (EE), competitive excitement (CE), affiliation with peers (AP), and positive parental involvement (PPI). The participants also reported their age, gender, grade, years of sport participation and sport status (NSSA, MSA, SSSA). SSSA reported significantly more enjoyment in all subscales except PPI when compared to NSSA (p&lt;0.05; ES 0.4 – 0.99). MSA and SSSA showed significant differences in the subscales of SRC and EE; however, effect size was small (0.37 and 0.33, respectively). Overall scores for intrinsic and extrinsic motivation were significantly lower among NSSA compared to MSA and SSSA (p&lt;0.01) with no differences between MSA and SSSA (p&gt;0.05). Results revealed no significant differences in the SEYSQ’s subscales for age (p&gt;0.05). Within the parameters of this study, adolescents that specialize in a single sport or those who compete in multiple sport both rely on intrinsic and extrinsic sources of enjoyment for motivation in very similar ways; whereas adolescent NSSA are less motivated and experience less enjoyment from sport participation compared to MSA and SSSA. Keywords: adolescent, enjoyment, SEYSQ, motivation, sport psychology

BackgroundNo validated measurement tool currently exists to assess a youth athlete’s level of sport specialization; frequently used measures largely focus on physical characterizations of sport participation (e.g. number of sports,...