Transcription design principles for spoken discourse research

<i>John M. Fyler</i>, Language and the Declining World in Chaucer, Dante, and Jean de Meun<i>Language and the Declining World in Chaucer, Dante, and Jean de Meun</i>. John M. Fyler. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007. Pp. xii+306.

A Report to the Academy: Talbot Taylor and the rhetorical roots of contemporary language theory

This book offers an innovative analysis of Dante’s figurative language in relation to both the theoretical framework developed in his works and the discursive strategies realised in his poetry. In doing so, it also provides an overview of Medieval theories of figurative language, with their respective concerns and overlaps. The first part, composed of four chapters, explores how Dante discusses figurative language in a selection of crucial passages from Vita nova, De vulgari eloquentia, Convivio, the epistle to Cangrande, Monarchia, and the Commedia. Each of these passages is investigated with respect to the specific issues at stake in each work, thus tracing a clear progression in Dante’s thought on figurative language, which is mirrored by an increasingly complex and conscious metaphorical practice. Such issues are then contextualised in the wider picture of the various theories of figurative language established by different Medieval disciplines (artes poetriae; artes dictaminis; biblical exegesis; artes praedicandi; epistemology). The second part provides an in-depth analysis of metaphors in Dante’s Commedia, through a close reading of multiple case studies. This section presents the methodology adopted for the identification and classification of Dante’s metaphors, and its main outcomes in terms of both quantitative and qualitative data. Its three chapters explore the linguistic components of the metaphors (meaning shift, morphology, syntax), then their stylistic features (semantics and pragmatics), and finally their distribution and mutual connections. The contemporary approaches adopted throughout the book contribute to the increasing complexity of Medieval disciplines concerned with figurative language.

Marcia Colish is one of the most influential scholars of the history of medieval and early modern thought, the author of numerous books and scores of articles in the field, as well as a pioneering President of the Medieval Academy of America. This volume honours her accomplishments with papers by her many colleagues, friends, and former students, who are themselves prominent scholars from across a range of disciplines. The chapters are diverse chronologically and topically, yet they are all stimulated by themes that Prof. Colish has explored during her long and distinguished career. They address the richness of European intellectual history between the twelfth and the sixteenth centuries, treating the multiple heritages of philosophy, theology, political theory, historiography, classical reception, and many other subjects to which her scholarship extends. The volume demonstrates the power of ideas in the development of European history generally, revealing that the careful study of the works of the ‘mind’ does indeed ‘matter’.

This article presents the results of research on the use of the word ‘anak’ (child) in Indonesian compound words from an ecolinguistic perspective. The problem studied is whether the use of the word ‘anak’ in Indonesian compound words has a relationship with the environment. When it shows a relationship with the environment, what type of environment will the word ‘anak’ in Indonesian compound words refer to? Because the problem is studied from an ecolinguistic perspective, the theory used in this research is the theory of language in relation to the environment. Language whose manifestation is in the form of grammatical units is assumed to designate a certain type of environment as its reference. The data of this research are in the form of compound words which contain the word ‘anak’ in Indonesian. The data were taken from a primary source, namely the online version of the Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia (2015), and from a secondary source, namely the researcher's introspective data as a native Indonesian speaker. The data were collected by the referential method and analyzed by the referential equivalent method. The results of data analysis were presented with informal methods and formal methods. The results of this study indicate that the use of the word ‘anak’ in Indonesian compound words refers to ten types of environment, namely (1) the family environment, (2) the educational environment, (3) the work environment, (4) the place environment, (5) the socio-economic environment, (6) the socio-ethical environment, (7) the animal environment, (8) the plant environment, (9) the natural environment, and (10) the artificial object environment. This finding is one of the evidences that language has a relationship with the environment.

Reviewed by: Language and Learning: Philosophy of Language in the Hellenistic Age Laura Grams Dorothea Frede and Brad Inwood , editors. Language and Learning: Philosophy of Language in the Hellenistic Age. Cambridge-New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005. Pp. xi + 353. Cloth, $90.00. This collection of papers on Hellenistic philosophy of language resulted from the ninth Symposium Hellenisticum, held in Hamburg in July 2001. It makes an important contribution to the secondary literature on this topic and will be valuable to anyone who studies Hellenistic philosophy. Because some chapters discuss broader issues in the philosophy of language or connect Hellenistic ideas about language to other periods, readers interested in the philosophy of language or ancient philosophy in general should also find this volume worthwhile. Although Frede and Inwood observe that the philosophy of language had not developed into a fully independent area of study during the Hellenistic period, a set of common concerns eventually emerged around such issues as the origins of language or the relations between language and thought. Discussions of these problems became the basis of later philosophical investigation in the Middle Ages and beyond. The ancients studied language in connection with a range of philosophical problems in epistemology, physics, and logic, and did not sever their inquiry from questions of linguistics and grammar. The papers in this collection likewise illuminate the relationship between theories of language and other philosophical issues. The first four chapters examine Stoic and Epicurean ideas about the origins of language, making clear that the question first raised in Plato's Cratylus of whether language is natural or conventional is far more nuanced than a simple dichotomy. James Allen argues that the Stoics' naturalism depends on understanding the origins of language in relation to the development of human rationality. Names satisfy a natural standard of correctness insofar as they result from the successful exercise of reason; thus, the imposition or thesis of names in early human history does not imply a conventional origin. A. A. Long makes the case for an even stronger connection between Stoic naturalism and the Cratylus, as he argues that the Stoics developed each of three distinct naturalist theses (formal, etymological, and phonetic) presented in that dialogue. He concludes with a detailed analysis of the Stoic theory of semantics he finds in chapter 5 of Augustine's De dialectica. These accounts of the Stoics are balanced by two chapters on Epicurean theory. Alexander Verlinsky outlines Epicurus' evolutionist view of the origin of language. In the first stage, words arise as spontaneous utterances which are already articulated and naturally related to their objects, while ambiguities are resolved in the second stage. Catherine Atherton focuses on Lucretius' account, raising challenges for the naturalist view that may also stir the interest of more recent proponents. She argues that the superior capacity for articulation possessed by humans does not adequately account for the emergence of intentional communication, which arises not from uncontrolled vocalizations but from a deliberate attempt to convey meaning. The remainder of the volume addresses various aspects of the use of language. Ineke Sluiter examines the Cynics' rhetoric and concludes that the expression of Cynicism within a certain social context ultimately undermines its anti-conventional message. Charles Brittain explores the use of language as it connects thought to reality. He explains how the development of definitions of concept terms allowed a theory of common sense concerning the relation between concepts and reality to emerge, though he argues that the common sense theory did not arise until Cicero had modified the Stoic view of common conceptions. David Blank examines arguments between the analogist and anomalist views of inflection-derivation (flexion) found in Book 8 of Varro's De lingua latina. He argues persuasively that Crates of Mallos was neither the source of this book nor an anomalist, but had been presented as one of a competing pair of analogy theorists by Varro's empiricist source. Chapters 8 and 9 focus on logical implications of the use of language. Susanne Bobzien argues that the Stoics resolved fallacies of ambiguity, not by examining the intentions of the speaker, but by appealing to the context for clarification. Because the ambiguous term will [End Page 153] have...

Everyone agrees that a writer's sense of usefully directs choices about what to say and where and how to say it. Typically, the writer strives to coordinate that sense with an estimate of the needs and expectations of some intended reader in order to convey effective assertions in a coherent sequence. The coordination is most evident in writing that Britton would locate in the transactional range, where communication is an explicit goal.1 But even in or literary discourse, the writer does not foresake all audience awareness (recall Robert Lowell's remark that he wrote poems for himself and a few friends). Literary writing usually assumes, and either honors or strategically violates, formal expectations in readers which partly condition their responses.2 It may be that only the most private and idiosyncratic writing remains truly unconscious of the public dimension which ordinarily helps to shape a writer's behavior. Some researchers consider the sense of purpose, or more exactly, its interaction with an estimate of reader-response, as the cornerstone of any comprehensive theory of James Kinneavy, most notably, insists that purpose ... is all important. The aim of a discourse determines everything else in the process of discourse. He adds that both a theory of language and a theory of discourse ... should be crowned with a viable framework of the uses of language.3 Several such frameworks have recently been advanced. Britton, for instance, ranges purposes along transactional, expressive, and poetic spectra, differentiating texts according to their perceived functions, whether as means to ends or as ends in themselves. Kinneavy orders intentions within four discrete categories: expressive, literary, persuasive, and referential.4 Richard Lloyd-Jones, in connection with the theory of primary trait scoring, has suggested a model comprised of explanatory, persuasive, and expressive modes.5 There are still others, with similarly overlapping categories and terminology. All proceed from the same controlling assumption, which James Moffett has stated precisely: Beneath the con-

The article considers the currently widespread foreign theories of learning foreign languages. Effective training of foreign language teachers requires a theoretical basis for language teaching – a statement of general principles that ensure learning, including the specification of key variables in language teaching and their relationship. The formation of the principles and content of foreign language teacher training depends on the following components: description of effective language teaching processes, development of the theory of the nature of effective language teaching, development of principles of language teacher training. Creating such a concept is impossible only by studying the learning process itself. Theoretical background is needed in this process. The author of the article analyzed a number of theories in terms of their applied component of foreign language teaching. Several theoretical models, according to the author, are the most relevant for teachers: 1) Theory of acculturation; 2) Theory of linguistic universals; 3) Interlingual theory; 4) Discourse theory; 5) Cognitive theory; 6) Krashen monitor model; and 7) Theory of cooperative learning. As a rule, theories of language acquisition are divided into five general categories, which are based on concepts: 1) behaviorism, emphasizing the role of conditionality; 2) interactionism, emphasizing the communicative, social needs, purpose and formulation: 3) cognitivism, emphasizing the logical, intellectual processes; 4) nativist or biological explanation, emphasizing innate genetic abilities; and 5) student emphasis and learning strategies. The author of the article insists that the study of strategy for students is a combination of these theoretical and practical components. This gives researchers another characteristic of the student, which is taken into account in the equation of factors that they can take into account, determining how and with what degree of effectiveness the second language is learned. For practitioners or teachers of English, it is a problem to apply the knowledge gained from the systematic observation of students' perceptions of their learning. Thus, this case, the ultimate goal of which is autonomous and effective language learning, depends on the cooperation of researchers, curriculum experts, material developers, class teachers and learners.

The conflict that occurred between Indonesia and Timor-Leste (Timor Timur) after the Popular Consultation was a conflict of power or a power struggle. This power struggle resulted in gross human rights violations. To resolve this conflict, in 2005 the Indonesian Timor-Leste Truth and Friendship Commission (KKP) was formed. Researchers assume that language can be used in conflict resolution. So the aims of this study are (1) to reveal the meaning of the text in Per Memoriam Ad Spem in constructing human rights violations in Timor-Leste in 1999, before and after the Popular Consultation. (2) Explaining the power of language in the construction of reports on human rights violations and conflict resolution in Per Memoriam Ad Spem, so that an agreement is reached that should not be forgiven to be forgiven. Van Dijk's discourse theory, Derrida's theory of deconstruction, and Bourdieu's theory of language &amp; power, all three are related to language and power. These three theories are used as a basis for dissecting the phenomenon of this research. This study uses a critical constructionism paradigm, a type of qualitative research, and an interpretive approach. The findings of this study are that the strength of the Indonesian language as the primary working language has a very extraordinary impact. Textually, in the macro, meso, and micro dimensions, through language, political communication has been constructed which leads to the establishment of reconciliation between parties in power, which should deconstruct human rights violations. The parties with their power discourse can melt down, so that gross violations of human rights, which should not be forgiven, become forgiven. This is in line with Derrida's idea of true forgiveness or unconditional forgiveness, namely forgiving the unforgivable

Management and organizational studies have directed attention towards the continuous change of, and introduction of, management tools such as models and concepts. In this perspective, management appears as a texture of concepts that are interrelated in a multiplicity of ways. To grapple with the expanding space of management concepts, the production of concepts in management has been problematized from a number of perspectives such as semiotics, discourse theory and deconstructive approaches. Most contributors who have demonstrated a frustration over the inability to fix management concepts see this as a flaw of management studies. This paper has two objectives. First, to discuss Gilles Deleuze's theory of language and the concept as a fruitful way of dealing with uncertainty of meaning, and, second, to point out the possibilities rather than the shortcomings of `unfixed' management concepts.

Kataphatic language brings divinity down to our context and entails a certain trust in culture and language for undertaking theological reflection. Tillich presents symbolic identity as a participation in the ground and abyss of being, which nurtures and ejects language. Tillich identified maternal imagery as “the divine source of all things.” The chapter places his maternal religious language in relation to different contemporary and medieval voices on symbolic motherhood, identity, and contextuality, such as feminist theologians who have grappled with maternal and Mariological symbolism, Julia Kristeva’s semiotic body, and the natal birthing imagery of Meister Eckhart. The chapter draws attention to the cord between Tillich’s religious symbolism and an alternate maternal discussion, subaltern to his theology, yet intertwined with his theory of symbolic language.

The organization of knowledge has always been a core activity within IS. Knowledge organization is the very foundation that makes information seeking possible. However, the tradition and research within IS is still influenced by the construction perspective, which means that the main concern regarding knowledge organization is focused on the construction of systems, i.e. cataloguing systems, classifying systems and thesaurus construction. This paper argues that knowledge organization must encompass theories that focus on the more fundamental and less technical view and raises the questions of epistemology and general linguistic theoryi, i.e. with attendance to language and meaning. So, the crucial task in contemporary knowledge organization theory must be how to create a framework for knowledge organization based upon the nature of a given discourse community and upon methods to reveal its knowledge structures. This paper focuses on the meaning aspect of language and the terminological aspect of knowledge organization. The paper argues that knowledge organization deals with terminological representations and linguistic statements, which include documents, document surrogates (the bibliographic record) and subject representations. Therefore, theories of terminology, language and meaning, and special languageii are considered in order to create a framework for special language studies within IS.

Aim. To study the crystallization of axiological dominants in fictional discourse.Methodology. Discourse is considered as a complex structural and semantic formation, an axiological system that includes specific functions. The basis of the discourse is a system of concepts. The concept is a set of meanings representing an axiological category important in the space of fictional discourse, acting as an axiological dominant. Methods of analysis include contextual and linguistichermeneutic analysis, as well as the technique of meaning crystallization.Results. The article analyzes contexts in their sequence and interaction, which made it possible to trace the formation of the concepts time and soulmate, as well as to demonstrate the impact of crystallization processes on text formation and axiological system. The meanings forming the individual author's concepts were revealed. The authors come to the conclusion that the crystallization of concepts determines the features of fictional discourse.Research implications. The study of axiological dominants allows to determine the structural and semantic organization of fictional discourse. This research contributes to the development of discourse theory, axiological linguistics, philological hermeneutics. Its practical value consists in the possibility of using research materials in educational courses on language theory, discourse theory, stylistics, text interpretation, theory and practice of translation.

While there has been much debate between minimalists and contextualists about the nature of what is said, both sides assume that some such notion must be appealed to in modelling linguistic communication. This book challenges that assumption, arguing that from the perspective of basic linguistic interpretation, nothing is said. To do this, the book draws a distinction between linguistic communication proper and behavioural communication, and then draws on Situation Theory and Relevance Theory to develop a model of the former that makes no appeal to any notion of what is said. Rather, what is said is introduced later as part of a reflective competence underlying sophisticated behavioural communication, such as irony and insinuation. The notions of implicature employed in these two types of communication are shown to be distinct, and to play different explanatory roles. With the division between linguistic and behavioural communication established, the book goes on to reconsider a number of areas of linguistic investigation that have received considerable attention in recent years. These include lexical modulation, scalar implicature, lying vs. otherwise misleading, and the correct characterisation of assertion and asserted content. The final chapter of the book relates the ideas developed to the discursive-commitment framework proposed by Robert Brandom. In doing so it considers, among other things, the notion of public language in relation to linguistic theorising, and the developmental relationship between language use and theory of mind.

Introduction As traditionally understood, universals of language are cross-linguistic generalizations concerning synchronic grammars, and their explanations usually appeal to functional principles thought of in a synchronic domain. It stands to reason, however, that any synchronic pattern must have a diachronic dimension, since that pattern had to come into being in some way. One could even argue, as I did in Bybee (1988), that we cannot be sure of the validity of a functional explanation for a synchronic universal unless we can confirm that that functional consideration was applicable in the formation of the synchronic pattern. That is, all explanations of synchronic universals must have a diachronic dimension. In the current chapter, I outline a position on the role of diachrony in universals, whose logical consequence is that the true universals of language are not synchronic patterns at all, but the mechanisms of change that create these patterns. This position is an extension of the theory of diachronic typology formulated and practiced by Joseph H. Greenberg, to whom this chapter is dedicated. In several papers, Greenberg proposed a method for the study of typology and universals which he called dynamic comparison or diachronic typology. In this method, typological patterns are shown to emerge from common diachronic changes that arise in related and unrelated languages. It has become clear subsequently that what Greenberg elaborated in the many domains of language that he studied was not a comparative methodology so much as a theory of language that has great potential for explanation.