Traditional Islamic Legal Epistemology in Pesantren’s Practice of Ḥisāb

This chapter analyzes Brazilian university students' contemporary religious practices and representations. More specifically, it aims at understanding the role played by religion in the representation systems and daily lives of students majoring in two different fields from various public and private universities in three Brazilian metropolises. These fields are Social Sciences and Medicine, and data covered were gathered in research carried out between 2004 and 2005. This research was carried out in the Brazilian metropolises of Porto Alegre, Rio de Janeiro, and Sao Luis do Maranhao, respectively located in Brazil's southern, southeastern and northern regions. Almost half the Social Sciences students declared that they never attend religious rituals, one third that they participate up to once a month, and one fifth that they participate only sporadically. In regional terms, religious attendance decreases as we move from Rio de Janeiro to Porto Alegre. Keywords: Brazilian University Students; contemporary religious practices; Porto Alegre; Rio de Janeiro; Sao Luis do Maranhao

This study investigates the discourse of hisab and rukyat within masāʾil fiqhiyyah education by comparatively examining the perspectives of Nahdlatul Ulama (NU) and Muhammadiyah figures in East Java regarding the determination of the beginning of the Qamariyah month, particularly Shawwal. The research aims to analyze the ontological foundations, interpretative paradigms, and practical implications of both approaches in responding to contemporary developments in astronomy. This study employs a descriptive-comparative method with an astronomical-fiqh–fiqh approach. Primary data were obtained through in-depth interviews with NU and Muhammadiyah scholars in East Java. In contrast, secondary data were collected from organizational decrees, classical and contemporary fiqh texts, astronomical calculations, and relevant literature. The research was conducted in several regions of East Java. Data were collected through interviews, documentation, and literature review, and analyzed using qualitative comparative analysis supported by astronomical interpretation. The findings reveal that NU scholars predominantly prioritize ru’yah al-hilal supported by hisab. In contrast, Muhammadiyah scholars determine the Qamariyah month based on hisab with the wujud al-hilal criterion. The differences arise mainly from divergent interpretations of syar’i texts and outdated visibility criteria that are no longer consistent with modern astronomical science. Despite these differences, the study identifies the potential for reconciliation through the harmonization of criteria rather than the dichotomy of methods. The study concludes that integrating astronomical accuracy with fiqh interpretation is essential to resolving recurring polemics and strengthening rational Islamic legal discourse.

This study examines simulacra as a form of distortion of the meaning of the ritual of the Soul Mass in the video clip "In Count" by the band. Feast which is released in 2023. This video clip is interesting to study because it presents a representation of religious rituals that is full of visual symbols, but placed in a digital culture context that emphasizes media documentation, visibility, and connectivity. This research aims to understand how simulacra is displayed as a distortion of the meaning of the ritual of the Soul Mass through visual symbols that appear in a series of scenes. The method used is interpretive qualitative research with Roland Barthes semiotic analysis, which includes the reading of denotative, connotative, and mythical meanings. The selection of units of analysis was carried out through Jean Baudrillard's simulacra theory, focusing on ten scenes representing the five aspects of simulacra. The results show that these video clips build on the dominant myth that represents social media and digital connectivity as a new authority in contemporary religious practices. The ritual of the Mass of the Spirits is no longer fully interpreted as a sacred experience that is transcendent, but is reduced to a visual performance that can be recorded, displayed, and socially validated. These findings confirm the existence of a process of desacralization of worship, as well as serve as a social critique of the shift in the religious orientation of the people in today's visual and digital culture.

Traditionally scientific rationality has been distinguished from mere practical rationality. It has seemed that it is sometimes rational to accept statements for the purposes of particular practical deliberations even though it would not be rational to count them as having been confirmed by science. Isaac Levi contends that this traditional view is mistaken. He thinks that there should be a single standard of acceptance for all purposes, scientific and practical. The author contends that Levi has given no good reason for identifying scientific with practical rationality. And he argues that Levi's own theory is inconsistent with the thesis that a scientist should use a single standard of acceptance in all his scientific deliberations.

The study focuses on moderate character education in Islamic educational institutions, especially those based on Islamic organizations such as Nahdlatul Ulama, Muhammadiyah, and Syarikat Islam. The study aims to reveal the moderate values of Islamic education institutions and their implementation in educational activities. The research uses a qualitative multisite approach, with data collection techniques through field observations, interviews, and documentation. This study includes Islamic educational institutions based on religious organizations, namely Nahdlatul Ulama, Muhammadiyah, and Syarikat Islam. Research locations are 1) Education and Social Foundation, Khadijah High School, East Java, as an Islamic educational institution based in Nahdlatul Ulama; 2) Muhammadiyah Boarding School, Yogyakarta; and 3) Cokroaminoto School, Surakarta, Central Java. The researchers performed data analysis using modified analytic induction analysis. Data analysis follows the stages of condensation, data display, verification, and conclusion. The results of this study show that each educational institution has moderate character values: 1) tawasuth; 2) tawazun; and 3) ta'addul/I'tidal. These values are embodied in learning to form a moderate Muslim character and become the mercy to the whole world (rahmatan lil alamin).

This study explored the transformation of Dayah institutions in Aceh, focusing on their change from traditional religious schools to a modern Islamic educational institutions, particularly in the post-conflict era. The integration of modern education into Dayah has sparked a dynamic contestation between tradition and modernity, reflecting broader social and political changes in Aceh. This study also emphasized Dayah's resilience and continued influence on post-conflict reconciliation and contemporary religious practices in Aceh. Meanwhile, this research employed qualitative research with a type of literature review. The findings showed that the transformation of Dayah has formed an integrated educational system that combines traditional Islamic teachings with modern education, fostering the development of science and technology. The Dayah system has successfully cultivated a society with a profound, comprehensive understanding of Islam and has contributed to the cultivation of tolerant individuals by alienating students from radical thought patterns.

The paper examines the tension amongst the Indonesian government and Islamic organisations in dealing with the plurality of interpretation within Islamic tradition and at the same time maintaining the unity and harmony of the Muslim ummah. I provide two case studies here: first, the issue of determining the first and the end of Ramadan and also 10 Zul Hijjah (for Idu al-Adha). Second, who has the authority to issue halal certificate? Due to different methods of hisab (astronomical calculation) and ru’yah (sighting a new crescent), Islamic organisations (Muhammadiyah, Nahdlatul Ulama and Majelis Ulama Indonesia) have produced different fatwas. At the same time, the Government has to make announcement on which dates to begin or to end fasting. With regard to the second issue, there is currently a tension between the Government and the MUI as the first thinks it falls into its authority whereas the latter insists that halal certificate is a written fatwa which belongs to its 'jurisdiction'.The questions are: how does the government decide which fatwa to choose, and what are the reactions of Islamic organisations when their views differ with the position of the government? There is also tension in society in celebrating Idul Fitri and Idul Adha on different dates. How far should the government go to accommodate such different views, to maintain harmony in the community?

Imkan rukyat refers to the conditions under which the new moon (hilal) can likely be sighted based on specific criteria. When the hilal is visible, the following day can be confirmed as the start of the new lunar month. However, if the hilal is not seen during the rukyat observation, a dilemma arises between two choices: whether the next day should be declared as the first day of the new lunar month based on the criteria of imkan rukyat, or whether the current month should be completed (istikmal) to a full 30 days. All Islamic mazhabs including Hanafi, Maliki, and Hanbali generally advocate for istikmal if the hilal is not sighted. However, within the Syafi�i Mazhab, there is a divergence of opinion, with some scholars advocating for istikmal and others for hisab (astronomical calculations). This duality of opinion is particularly relevant in Indonesia, a country with a majority of Syafi�i followers. The aim of this research is to analyze the views of Syafi�i scholars on this matter. This study is a type of library research, focusing on the decisions of the Ministry of Religious Affairs of the Republic of Indonesia's isbat meetings regarding the start of the lunar month and the moon sighting data provided by Nahdlatul Ulama. The research is grounded in the Quran, Hadith, and Syafi�i jurisprudence (fiqh) texts. The findings of this study indicate that the majority of Syafi�i scholars hold that if the hilal is in a position of imkan rukyat but is not sighted, the month should be completed to 30 days (istikmal). However, some Syafi�i scholars permit the determination of the start of the new lunar month the next day based on hisab imkan rukyat, provided that the calculation is done by at least seven qualified astronomers who are unlikely to err, and that the non-sighting of the hilal is due to technical or natural factors. These results can serve as a reference for determining the start of the lunar month when the hilal is not visible due to cloudy conditions

The paper examines the tension amongst the Indonesian government and Islamic organisations in dealing with the plurality of interpretation within Islamic tradition and at the same time maintaining the unity and harmony of the Muslim ummah. I provide two case studies here: first, the issue of determining the first and the end of Ramadan and also 10 Zul Hijjah (for Idu al-Adha). Second, who has the authority to issue halal certificate? Due to different methods of hisab (astronomical calculation) and ru'yah (sighting a new crescent), Islamic organisations (Muhammadiyah, Nahdlatul Ulama and Majelis Ulama Indonesia) have produced different fatwas. At the same time, the Government has to make announcement on which dates to begin or to end fasting. With regard to the second issue, there is currently a tension between the Government and the MUI as the first thinks it falls into its authority whereas the latter insists that halal certificate is a written fatwa which belongs to its ‘jurisdiction’.The questions are: how does the government decide which fatwa to choose, and what are the reactions of Islamic organisations when their views differ with the position of the government? There is also tension in society in celebrating Idul Fitri and Idul Adha on different dates. How far should the government go to accommodate such different views, to maintain harmony in the community?

The debate over the determination of the beginning of the Islamic calendar in Indonesia is still a complex issue that has a vast impact on religious, social, and public policy aspects. This polemic arises due to differences in ḥisāb (astronomical calculation) and rukyat (hilāl observation) methods adopted by various Islamic organizations, such as Nahdlatul Ulama (NU) and Muhammadiyah. This study used a qualitative approach with descriptive-normative analysis to explore the urgency of legal formalization and the supremacy of public law in determining the beginning of the Islamic calendar. The findings show that the absence of a binding legal authority is the main factor fuelling disagreement. Government-organised isbat sessions are often not universally accepted, so a more assertive legal policy based on national consensus is needed. By considering the principle of benefit, this study recommends the integration of sharia, astronomical technology, and positive law to improve accuracy, legitimacy, and uniformity in determining the beginning of the Islamic calendar.

The fasting and Eid al-Fitr celebration has a strong public dimension for their traditional characteristics in Islamic communal celebrations. This study used field research from interviews with the two largest mass organisations in Indonesia, Nahdlatul Ulama (NU) and Muhammadiyah, and the statements of mass media. This research shows that contestation of religious symbols is not something that needs to be debated but it should broaden the understanding of the differences that must be respected in order to build brotherhood not, division. Contestation of religious symbols between the hisab [astronomical calculations] and the ru’yat[sighting a new crescent moon] is a competition between religious organisations, to strengthen their position, social legitimacy and religious authority in the public sphere. The government has to take the initiative to compromise the policy between the two Islamic organisations to reach a methodological agreement in order to minimise social tensions.Contribution: This article proposed that understanding the ru’yat and hisab as a symbol of contestation becomes an attribute of religious organisations and part of organisational behaviour and culture.

Nahdlatul Ulama and Muhammadiyah have responded to the local reality of Gorontalo by new approaches of post-traditionalism and neo-modernism. The present article delves to explore the landscape of local Muslim community in Gorontalo within the discourse of Nahdlatul Ulama and Muhammadiyah; it also aims to investigate the model of post-traditionalist Nahdlatul Ulama and neo-modernist Muhammadiyah thoughts in understanding Islam and Gorontalo culture. The study employed a qualitative method that relies on primary and secondary data. Informants from the two Islamic organizations, Nahdlatul Ulama and Muhammadiyah, were involved within this study. Prior to the data analysis, the primary and secondary data were classified.The results of this study signified two points of concern: 1) the Muslim community in Gorontalo consists of Nahdlatul Ulama and Muhammadiyah affiliations. The two organizations have a harmonious relationship; both organizations understand and respect each other. Some of the jama’ah (follower/member) of one organization even practice the religious traditions of the other organization. 2) Nahdlatul Ulama stands on the ground of traditional school of thoughts that are responsive to the modernization, while Muhammadiyah bases its foundation on the modern thoughts that accommodate local traditions. The results further emphasized that the difference of perspective between both organizations lies around the thoughts, while the deconstruction of religious missions remain the same between both organizations. Each organization tends to stand firm on their own ideology as what originally proposed when the organization was first established.

In ‘Practical and Scientific Rationality: A Difficulty for Levi's Epistemology,’ Wayne Backman points to genuine difficulties in Isaac Levi's epistemology, difficulties that Backman attributes to Levi's having required, and for no good reason, that a rational person adopt but one standard of possibility for all her endeavors practical and scientific. I argue that Levi's requirement has, in fact, a deep and compelling motivation that tips the scales in favor of a different diagnosis of Levi's ills — i.e., that Levi's error lies simply in his having set insufficiently high qualifications for admission into the corpus that determines a person's standard of possibility.

This study explores the strategic role of Nahdlatul Ulama (NU) in suppressing Wahhabism and radicalism in Sumenep Regency through cultural and religious moderation initiatives. As Indonesia's largest Islamic organisation, NU serves as a vital civil society actor in preserving the country's pluralistic religious landscape, particularly in rural and archipelagic areas. Using a qualitative case study approach, data were collected through interviews, focus group discussions, observations, and document analysis involving NU leaders, educators, and government officials. The primary data consisted of field findings from participants, while secondary data included institutional documents, reports, and literature relevant to NU programs. Data were analysed using thematic analysis through interactive cycles of reduction, data display, and conclusion drawing. The findings reveal that NU Sumenep exercises agency by mapping radical-affiliated institutions, labelling mosques, launching ideological training for cadres (PKPNU), and promoting religious moderation through media and higher education networks. These initiatives represent a contextualised model of grassroots resistance to exclusivist ideologies. NU's agency, grounded in the Ahlussunnah wal Jama’ah tradition and aligned with national policy frameworks, contributes to ideological resilience and reinforces a moderate Islam that is inclusive, tolerant, and nationally committed. Furthermore, these efforts significantly influence Islamic education in Sumenep by strengthening curricula of religious moderation, shaping institutional identity in Islamic schools and pesantren, and providing preventive frameworks that reduce the penetration of Wahhabi-oriented teachings within educational environments.

Mozi1 can be described as broad and profound, which covers the natural sciences, philosophy and social sciences, Mozi has made great achievements in mathematics, mechanics, optics, engineering science, etc. In terms of natural science, philosophy and logic, thoughts including «whole world as one community», «homogeneity of benefit and morality», «respect the rules», «peaceful coexistence», «mutual aid» advocated by Mozi, are complementary and consistent with his scientific rationality and scientific spirit. On this basis, Mozi further demonstrated his labor-based and ability-based view, power contract view, view of rule of law, and social overall view, etc. With the serious incompleteness and loss of the documents of Mozi, and the practical rationality and empirical way of thinking of traditional Confucianism have become cultural factors restricting the further development of science, technology and spiritual civilization. So the numerous scientific and technological achievements created by Mozi, and the ideological system of Mohism have not been fully and completely inherited and developed. In a certain sense, the elements of science, democracy and other elements lacking in the feudal social ideology with Confucianism as the mainstream need to be supplemented by the clear scientific rationality and scientific spirit of Mohist. To revitalize traditional culture and promote economic and social development, it is still necessary to continue to excavate and carry forward the scientific rationality and ethical spirit of Mohism.