Abstract
Human population density within 100 km of the sea is approximately three times higher than the global average. People in this zone are concentrated in coastal cities that are hubs for transport and trade – which transform the marine environment. Here, we review the impacts of three interacting drivers of marine urbanization (resource exploitation, pollution pathways and ocean sprawl) and discuss key characteristics that are symptomatic of urban marine ecosystems. Current evidence suggests these systems comprise spatially heterogeneous mosaics with respect to artificial structures, pollutants and community composition, while also undergoing biotic homogenization over time. Urban marine ecosystem dynamics are often influenced by several commonly observed patterns and processes, including the loss of foundation species, changes in biodiversity and productivity, and the establishment of ruderal species, synanthropes and novel assemblages. We discuss potential urban acclimatization and adaptation among marine taxa, interactive effects of climate change and marine urbanization, and ecological engineering strategies for enhancing urban marine ecosystems. By assimilating research findings across disparate disciplines, we aim to build the groundwork for urban marine ecology – a nascent field; we also discuss research challenges and future directions for this new field as it advances and matures. Ultimately, all sides of coastal city design: architecture, urban planning and civil and municipal engineering, will need to prioritize the marine environment if negative effects of urbanization are to be minimized. In particular, planning strategies that account for the interactive effects of urban drivers and accommodate complex system dynamics could enhance the ecological and human functions of future urban marine ecosystems.
Highlights
The world’s population is urbanizing rapidly (Bloom 2011, Seto et al 2011, UN 2017) with mass migration towards coastlines (Creel 2003, McGranahan et al 2007) and policy reforms that favour densification (Dallimer et al 2011, Kyttä et al 2013)
Human density is strongly related to resource exploitation, and one of the early effects of marine urbanization is the depletion of nearby fishery resources (Li 2003, Kirby 2004)
There is considerable need to integrate findings relating to marine urbanization across subdisciplines of ecology; this effort would be aided by conceptual frameworks that integrate multiple variables, identify potential interactions and feedbacks, incorporate historical trajectories, and facilitate the development of testable hypotheses regarding the response of urban marine ecosystems to further environmental change
Summary
The world’s population is urbanizing rapidly (Bloom 2011, Seto et al 2011, UN 2017) with mass migration towards coastlines (Creel 2003, McGranahan et al 2007) and policy reforms that favour densification (Dallimer et al 2011, Kyttä et al 2013). Coastal cities create marine pollution, including the harmful chemicals, bacteria and sediments associated sewage and urban runoff (Hoffman et al 1983, Nixon 1995, Cornelissen et al 2008) They lead to nearshore development, usually starting with a harbour, and including hard coastal defences to reduce erosion of valuable land, whether it be pre-existing or reclaimed (Charlier et al 2005, Lotze et al 2005, Tian et al 2016). There is considerable need to integrate findings relating to marine urbanization across subdisciplines of ecology; this effort would be aided by conceptual frameworks that integrate multiple variables, identify potential interactions and feedbacks, incorporate historical trajectories, and facilitate the development of testable hypotheses regarding the response of urban marine ecosystems to further environmental change Frameworks meeting this need would broadly support marine research in the Anthropocene, as most coastal zones are strongly impacted by anthropogenic stressors, but would help build a foundation for urban marine ecology – a field in its nascence. Empirical testing of the underlying processes that create these patterns and further research in areas we highlight in this paper can help build a framework for understanding multifaceted impacts of marine urbanization, and future trajectories of urban marine ecosystems in the face of climate change
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