Tolerance or Toleration? How to Deal with Religious Conflicts in Europe

Abstract

Europe is once again beset by religious conflicts. There are several examples of unrestrained opposition against, and by, religious minorities and majorities alike. Think of the ban on minarets in Switzerland which is spreading like a wildfire in Germany, Italy and beyond. Think also of the veil saga that has occupied French politicians and their society in the last two decades. The target of opposition can be religious majorities as well; one example is the litigation on the crucifix in the classroom.1 Needless to say, opposition calls for an equal reply, and so religious minorities and majorities respond with individual actions or campaigns against secular societies and their states. Religious conflicts are not new in Europe. Religious wars in the seventeenth century were the bloodiest and most violent confrontation on the Continent. The Treaty of Westphalia of 1648 put an end to them, and organised Europe in such a way that states could rule over religiously homogenous communities.2 There were Catholic and Protestant states; religious pluralism within each state was limited as much as possible.