Abstract
Previous observations of improvements in cognition in typically developing children following moderate to vigorous exercise (e.g., Budde, Voelcker-Rehage, Pietrabyk-Kendziorra, Ribeiro, & Tidow, 2008; Hillman et al., 2009) have led to increased interest in the potential benefits of exercise for children with neurodevelopmental disorders, involving difficulties in self-regulation (e.g., Halperin & Healey, 2011; Archer & Kostrzewa, 2012). Using a within-sample design, the current study looked at the beneficial effects of non-aerobic movement training (Tai Chi), compared to aerobic movement training (Kick Boxing), on behavioural measures of cognitive control and clinical measures of tic severity in a group of young people with Tourette Syndrome (TS). We demonstrate that Kick Boxing, but not Tai Chi, led to a significant enhancement in cognitive control task performance. Furthermore, while tic frequency (tics per minute) was reduced during both types of exercise, this reduction was significantly greater, and sustained for longer, following Kick Boxing. Importantly, the magnitude of the increase in cognitive control following Kick Boxing predicted the degree of reduction in tic frequency. These findings suggest that aerobic exercise may be a useful intervention for improving self-regulation of tics in young people with TS, probably through enhancements in associated cognitive control circuits.
Highlights
A number of common neurodevelopmental conditions, such as Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD) and Tourette Syndrome (TS), have been associated with impairments in the self-regulation of behaviour
Tic ratings There was a marginal difference in tic frequency in the non-clinical pre-exercise interviews between the two exercise types, with mean tic frequency being greater before Kick Boxing (KB) than Tai Chi (TC) [KB: M= 20.06 vs. TC: M= 23.81; t(16) = -1.958, p= 0.068; g= -0.22993]
Tic frequency decreased significantly more during Kick Boxing than during Tai Chi [KB: M= -59.76% vs. TC: M= -33.07%; t(16)= -3.288, p= 0.005; g= 0.32] and this difference between exercise types remained marginally significant after exercise had ended [KB: M= -21.74% vs. TC: M= -0.78%; t(16)= -2.007, p= 0.062; g= 0.32]
Summary
A number of common neurodevelopmental conditions, such as Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD) and Tourette Syndrome (TS), have been associated with impairments in the self-regulation of behaviour. In TS, impaired self-regulation is manifested through the presence of unwanted, repetitive vocalisations and movements, referred to respectively as vocal and motor tics, which typically begin around 6-7 years of age (Leckman, 2002). The cause of the decrease in tics over time is not known but it has been suggested that control of tics may be gained through the development of compensatory self-regulatory mechanisms, which are notably implemented by neural circuits linking frontal and primary and secondary motor regions (Plessen et al, 2004; Serrien, Orth, Evans, Lees, and Brown, 2005; Jackson et al, 2011)
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