Abstract
Surface exploration is a key step in the colonization of surfaces by sessile marine biofoulers. As many biofouling organisms can delay settlement until a suitable surface is encountered, colonization can comprise surface exploration and intermittent swimming. As such, the process is best followed in three dimensions. Here we present a low-cost transportable stereoscopic system consisting of two consumer camcorders. We apply this novel apparatus to behavioral analysis of barnacle larvae (≈800 μm length) during surface exploration and extract and analyze the three-dimensional patterns of movement. The resolution of the system and the accuracy of position determination are characterized. As a first practical result, three-dimensional swimming trajectories of the cypris larva of the barnacle Semibalanus balanoides are recorded in the vicinity of a glass surface and close to PEG2000-OH and C11NMe3+Cl− terminated self-assembled monolayers. Although less frequently used in biofouling experiments due to its short reproductive season, the selected model species [Marechal and Hellio (2011), Int Biodeterior Biodegrad, 65(1):92–101] has been used following a number of recent investigations on the settlement behavior on chemically different surfaces [Aldred et al. (2011), ACS Appl Mater Interfaces, 3(6):2085–2091]. Experiments were scheduled to match the availability of cyprids off the north east coast of England so that natural material could be used. In order to demonstrate the biological applicability of the system, analysis of parameters such as swimming direction, swimming velocity and swimming angle are performed.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (doi:10.1007/s13758-012-0050-x) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
Highlights
Since 2008, the most successful of the heavy-metal based antifoulants, tributyltin (TBT) [3], has been banned and research has since focused on alternative strategies to mitigate the undesired accumulation of biomass on vessels submerged in the marine environment
During the calibration an object, with marks or points, the positions of which are known in real-world coordinates, is used to determine the corresponding positions in image coordinates for both camera images
The corresponding positions in image coordinates are detected in the left and the right frames
Summary
Since 2008, the most successful of the heavy-metal based antifoulants, tributyltin (TBT) [3], has been banned and research has since focused on alternative strategies to mitigate the undesired accumulation of biomass on vessels submerged in the marine environment. Improved knowledge of surface cues that promote settlement of fouling species as well as investigation of surface cues that repel settlement will lead towards effective but environmentally inert antifouling materials. For most biofoulers it is not the macroscopically visible adult organism that is relevant in this context, but the colonization stage, which is responsible for initial surface attachment [4]. Much of the research on settlement behavior of thoracican barnacles has been driven by the perceived need for a better understanding of larval settlement in order to interfere with the process
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