Abstract
The path to the mitigation of global climate change and global carbon dioxide emissions avoidance leads to the large-scale substitution of fossil fuels for the generation of electricity with renewable energy sources. The transition to renewables necessitates the development of large-scale energy storage systems that will satisfy the hourly demand of the consumers. This paper offers an overview of the energy storage systems that are available to assist with the transition to renewable energy. The systems are classified as mechanical (PHS, CAES, flywheels, springs), electromagnetic (capacitors, electric and magnetic fields), electrochemical (batteries, including flow batteries), hydrogen and thermal energy storage systems. Emphasis is placed on the magnitude of energy storage each system is able to achieve, the thermodynamic characteristics, the particular applications the systems are suitable for, the pertinent figures of merit and the energy dissipation during the charging and discharging of the systems.
Highlights
The Need for Energy StorageThe rampant increase in carbon dioxide emissions in the atmosphere and the associated global climate change (GCC) have become the major environmental concerns of the21st century [1]
Despite the significant coal combustion curtailment and CO2 emission reductions in the countries of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), the global CO2 emissions have been steadily increasing by a compound rate of 1.7% during the last two decades and it does not appear that this long-term rate will diminish, at least in the near future [6,7]
A superconducting material that would operate at moderate pressure and at temperatures higher than the ambient would be ideal for future SMES applications, because all the dissipated energy would be transferred to the environment
Summary
The rampant increase in carbon dioxide emissions in the atmosphere and the associated global climate change (GCC) have become the major environmental concerns of the. The last (horizontal) line shows the contribution of the nuclear power plants, approximately 1100 MW for this city Given that the current group of nuclear reactors in the USA (and several other countries) generate power at a constant level and do not follow the electricity demand fluctuations, this implies that the excess energy during the morning hours (the area between the lower part of the duck curve and the nuclear capacity line) must be either dissipated in the electricity grid or otherwise stored. The high variability anddemand uncertainty in the wind-generated electricity, type ofGiven planning to meet the power of the consumers without electricity, any type to meet theand power demand of the consumers without sufficient storage willofbeplanning highly probabilistic laden with significant uncertainty
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