The use of psychological skills in Deaflympic sport

The evaluation of psychological skills by athletes and their relationship with sports performance and satisfaction has been of great interest in recent decades. Likewise, there has been an emergent tendency to focus on developing specific psychological skills for each sport. The principal aim of this study was to determine the frequency with which athletes deploy psychological skills whilst competing and whether their frequency varies in accordance with the technical, tactical and physical characteristics of the sport in question. A further objective was to establish the connection between the frequency of use of psychological skills and athletes' degree of satisfaction with their performance. The study comprised 1003 athletes practicing 43 different sports, grouped into 7 categories based on the similarities between them. Frequency of use of the psychological skills was measured with the Test of Performance Strategies 3. The data analyses allowed the following conclusions to be drawn: the degree to which psychological skills are used is dependent on the technical, tactical and physical characteristics of each sport; and the higher the frequency of the use of psychological skills, the greater the athletes' degree of satisfaction with their performance. These results allow athletes and coaches to increase levels of sports performance by working on the use of psychological skills, adapted to the technical, tactical or physical requirements of the category in which their sport is included. In addition, working on different psychological skills will improve their satisfaction with sports performance.

Objective:To examine the relationship between self-reported use of psychological skills and rehabilitation adherence.Design:Prospective correlational design.Setting:Outpatient physical-therapy clinic specializing in sports medicine.Patients:Fifty-four patients (17 women and 37 men) undergoing rehabilitation after anterior-cruciate-ligament reconstruction.Main Outcome Measures:An abbreviated version of the Sports Injury Survey (Ievleva & Orlick, 1991) was administered approximately 5 weeks after surgery to assess use of goal setting, imagery, and positive self-talk. Four adherence measures were obtained during the remainder of rehabilitation: attendance at rehabilitation sessions, practitioner ratings of patient adherence at rehabilitation sessions, patient self-reports of home exercise completion, and patient self-reports of home cryotherapy completion.Results:Goal setting was positively associated with home exercise completion and practitioner adherence ratings. Positive self-talk was positively correlated with home exercise completion.Conclusions:Use of certain psychological skills might contribute to better adherence to sport-injury rehabilitation protocols.

The present study tested and extended Lane and Terry (2000) conceptual model of mood-performance relationships using a large dataset from an online experiment. Methodological and theoretical advances included testing a more balanced model of pleasant and unpleasant emotions, and evaluating relationships among emotion regulation traits, states and beliefs, psychological skills use, perceptions of performance, mental preparation, and effort exerted during competition. Participants (N = 73,588) completed measures of trait emotion regulation, emotion regulation beliefs, regulation efficacy, use of psychological skills, and rated their anger, anxiety, dejection, excitement, energy, and happiness before completing a competitive concentration task. Post-competition, participants completed measures of effort exerted, beliefs about the quality of mental preparation, and subjective performance. Results showed that dejection associated with worse performance with the no-dejection group performing 3.2% better. Dejection associated with higher anxiety and anger scores and lower energy, excitement, and happiness scores. The proposed moderating effect of dejection was supported for the anxiety-performance relationship but not the anger-performance relationship. In the no-dejection group, participants who reported moderate or high anxiety outperformed those reporting low anxiety by about 1.6%. Overall, results showed partial support for Lane and Terry’s model. In terms of extending the model, results showed dejection associated with greater use of suppression, less frequent use of re-appraisal and psychological skills, lower emotion regulation beliefs, and lower emotion regulation efficacy. Further, dejection associated with greater effort during performance, beliefs that pre-competition emotions did not assist goal achievement, and low subjective performance. Future research is required to investigate the role of intense emotions in emotion regulation and performance.

The aims of the present study were twofold. First, to investigate self-reported social support, self-regulation, and psychological skill use in esports athletes (e-athletes) compared to traditional athletes. Second, to determine if self-reported social support, self-regulation, and psychological skill use influenced e-athlete in-game rank. An online survey was used to collect data from an international sample of e-athletes (n = 1,444). The e-athletes reported less social support, self-regulation, and psychological skill use than reported by traditional athletes in previous studies. E-athletes with higher scores in social support, self-regulation, and psychological skill use was associated with higher in-game rank. The lack of an organisational structure in esports may be a contributing factor as to why e-athletes score lower than traditional athletes on social support, self-regulation, and psychological skill use. Future research is warranted to explore the development of esports programs aiming to promote athletes’ social support, self-regulation, and use of psychological skills to enhance in-game performance and well-being.

This study investigated associations between achievement goal orientations and reported psychological skill use in sport. Five hundred seventy three elite young athletes completed the Perceptions of Success Questionnaire (POSQ; Roberts, Treasure, & Balague, 1998) and the Test of Performance Strategies (TOPS; Thomas, Murphy, & Hardy, 1999). Cluster analysis revealed three distinct goal profile groups: Cluster 1—Higher-task/Moderate-ego (n = 260); Cluster 2—Lower-task/Higher-ego (n = 120); and Cluster 3—Moderate-task/Lower-ego (n = 119). A MANOVA revealed a significant multivariate effect, Pillai's Trace = .11, F(16, 1076) = 3.75, p = .001, η2 = .05, with post hoc tests determining that higher-task/moderate-ego athletes reported using significantly more Imagery, Goal setting, and positive Self-talk skills when compared with Lower-task/Higher-ego and/or Moderate-task/Lower-ego athletes. These findings are discussed with respect to the potential role that achievement goals play in the application and development of psychological skills in youth sport.

BackgroundThe majority of past work on athletes’ use of psychological skills and techniques (PSTs) has adopted a variable-centered approach in which the statistical relations among study variables are averaged across a sample. However, variable-centered-analyses exclude the possibility that PSTs may be used in tandem or combined in different ways across practice and competition settings. With this empirical gap in mind, the purposes of this study were to identify the number and type of profiles of elite athletes’ use of PSTs, and examine differences between these clusters in terms of their self-reported mental toughness.MethodsIn this cross-sectional survey study, 285 Malaysian elite athletes (170 males, 115 females) aged 15–44 years (M = 18.89, SD = 4.49) completed measures of various PSTs and mental toughness. Latent profile analysis was employed to determine the type and number of profiles that best represent athletes’ reports of their use of PSTs in practice and competition settings, and examine differences between these classes in terms of self-reported mental toughness.ResultsOur results revealed three profiles (low, moderate, high use) in both practice and competition settings that were distinguished primarily according to quantitative differences in the absolute levels of reported use across most of the PSTs assessed in practice and competition settings, which in turn, were differentially related with mental toughness. Specifically, higher use of PSTs was associated with higher levels of mental toughness.ConclusionThis study provides one of the first analyses of the different configurations of athletes’ use of PSTs that typify unique subgroups of performers. An important next step is to examine the longitudinal (in) stability of such classes and therefore provide insight into the temporal dynamics of different configurations of athletes’ use of PSTs.

Context: Injured athletes rely on athletic trainers to assist them when recovering from injury. Over the last 20 years, the use of psychological skills to speed recovery has become increasingly popular. Objective: Explore athletic training students' perceptions of the importance and effectiveness of psychological skills in the rehabilitation of sport injury as well as their academic preparation in their use, and examine the differences in perceived effectiveness for those with and without formal training in the skill. Design: Survey. Setting: Athletic training students enrolled in CAATE-accredited athletic training programs. Participants: 180 athletic training students (males, n = 76; females, n = 104) from nine universities. Data Collection & Analysis: The survey included 15 questions from the Attitudes About Imagery (AAI) survey and a demographic section including questions about their educational preparation, use of, and interest in psychological skills training. Two chi-square analyses, two ANOVAs, and a MANOVA were computed to investigate differences in athletic training students' educational preparation, use of, and interest in psychological skills training. Results: While athletic training students agreed that it is important to treat the psychological aspects of injury (mean = 4.47 out of 5), only 50.6% reported that they had taken a course in sport psychology or psychological skills training. No differences in the perception of effectiveness were found between students that reported formal training in psychological skills compared to those that did not (χ24,176= 7.48, P = .11). Overall, the ratings of the effectiveness of psychological skills were positive as indicated by mean AAI scores between 4.31 to 6.17. Conclusions: We found positive perceptions of psychological skills. However, the students' mean AAI scores were generally lower than previously surveyed athletic trainers and physical therapists.

Relationships between self-report trait emotional intelligence and psychological skills were investigated. Male athletes (54) completed the Emotional Intelligence Scale (EIS; Schutte et al., 1998) and the Test of Performance Strategies (TOPS; Thomas, Murphy, & Hardy, 1999). Canonical correlation results suggested psychological skills used in both competition and in practice relate to perceptions of emotional intelligence (Practice: Canonical R = .69, p < .001; Competition: Canonical R = .67, p < .01). Specifically, self-talk, imagery, and activation in both practice and competition were associated with perceptions of the appraisal of others' emotions and the ability to regulate emotions. The direction of relationships showed that individuals reporting frequent use of psychological skills also reported stronger perceptions of emotional intelligence. Future researchers should seek to establish the direction of relationships by investigating whether increased psychological skills use is associated with enhanced emotional intelligence or vice versa.

Set within B. J. Zimmerman’s (1989, A social cognitive view of self-regulated academic learning, Journal of Educational Psychology, Vol. 81, pp. 329–339; and B. J. Zimmerman, 2000, Attaining self-regulation: A social-cognitive perspective, in M. Boekaerts, P. Pintrich, & M. Seidner, Eds., Self-Regulation: Theory, Research, and Applications, pp. 13–39, Orlando, Florida, Academic Press) cyclical model of self-regulation and social–cognitive theory, this study tested the hypothesis that multi-modal psychological skills training (PST) would increase self-regulation behavior, self-efficacy, and psychological skill use in military pilot-trainees experiencing course-related learning difficulties. From pre- to post-intervention, findings showed that specific self-regulation behavior increased linearly. Likewise, significant increases in self-efficacy and psychological skill use occurred, along with concomitant reductions in anxiety and worry. Changes were generally retained at 2-month follow-up. PST highlights potential in modifying pilot-trainee cognitive and behavioral strategies to underpin learning, improve individual/cohort responsiveness, and importantly, cost effectiveness in training provision.

The relationship between self-report psychological skills and recovery-stress state was investigated. Seventy adolescent state athletes in Malaysia completed the Test of Performance Strategies (TOPS), and Recovery-Stress questionnaire (RESTQ-Sport). Correlation analysis was used to determine the significant relationship between the psychological skills and recovery-stress subscales. The results showed that there were significant correlations between the psychological skills and recovery-stress states. For psychological skills during practice, the strongest correlations were observed in attention control and general stress (r = -0.48, p < 0.01), goal setting and total recovery (r = 0.72, p < 0.01), and psychological skills during competition, the strongest correlations were observed in self-talk and general stress (r = -0.55, p < 0.01), goal setting and total recovery (r = 0.57, p < 0.01). The direction (positive or negative) of correlations showed that individuals reporting frequent use of psychological skills also reported lower state of stress and higher state of recovery in their sport during practice and competition. Future researchers should seek to establish the path relationships by investigating whether demographic variables, physical fitness level and other psychological measures that may associated with recovery-stress states and the use of psychological skills for athletes.

This text represents the collaboration of more than 70 authors from multiple countries. Essentials of Exercise and Sport Psychology: An Open Access Textbook brings this diverse set of experts together to provide a free, open, accessible textbook for students studying exercise and sport psychology. Primarily directed at undergraduate students, this well-referenced book is also appropriate for graduate students.The topics covered are broad, ranging from an Introduction to Exercise Psychology (Chapter 1), to an Introduction to Sport Psychology (Chapter 19), to Working in Sport, Exercise, and Performance Psychology (Chapter 33). Importantly, students should recognize that each author brings their individual perspectives, experiences, and expertise to this book. Therefore, some chapters may share overlapping content, but the content is discussed in unique ways. For example, Chapters 2, 3, 4, and 5 focus on physical activity and exercise behavior. While content in these chapters is related, it is not redundant. To fully understand the complex world of exercise and sport psychology, students are encouraged to engage with diverse perspectives from many authors.Chapters also contain learning exercises to prompt students and instructors to engage with the material on a deeper level. For effective review, students and instructors are encouraged to complete these learning exercises and discuss responses together.The majority of this textbook was written during the global COVID-19 pandemic. We are tremendously grateful for all of the efforts and expertise of the many contributors to this project. Despite the challenges of teaching, researching, and surviving in the pandemic, the authors persisted. As a result, Essentials of Exercise and Sport Psychology: An Open Access Textbook is completed; we think you will enjoy using it as you pursue this challenging and fascinating area of study! This content is open access and can be accessed at https://doi.org/10.51224/B1000 ISBN-13: 978-0-578-93236-1 Published by the Society for Transparency, Openness, and Replication in Kinesiology CC-By Attribution 4.0 International, except Figure 23.1, Table 28.1, and cover artwork. Figure 23.1 is republished with permission of Taylor &amp; Francis Informa UK Ltd – Books, from Sport and exercise psychology (2nd ed., p. 301), by A. M. Lane (Ed.), London, UK: Routledge. Copyright © 2016; permission conveyed through Copyright Clearance Center. Table 28.1 is adapted from Madigan et al. (2019). First published in The Sport and Exercise Scientist, Issue 61, Autumn 2019. Published by the British Association of Sport and Exercise Sciences - www.bases.org.uk. Copyright © BASES, 2019.

Psychological skills can help athletes maximize their physical skills (Smith, Schutz, Smoll, & Ptacek, 1995) and overcome sport-related adversity. These skills may be especially beneficial to athletes performing within natural and unstable risk sport environments. The current study assessed psychological skills among risk sport athletes (N 5 232) and the impact of experience on the use of such skills. Risk sport athletes of varying degrees of experience completed a modified version of the Athletic Coping Skills Inventory (ACSI; Smith et al., 1995). Risk sport athletes exceeded the midpoint on all of the ACSI subscales, indicating psychological skills usage. Experienced athletes scored significantly higher (p , .05) on three of the subscales and the total score, then leisure and novice athletes. These findings suggest the use of psychological skills within unpredictable and dynamic risk sport environments.

LANGUAGE NOTE | Document text in English; abstract also in Chinese. The current study is aimed to investigate the relationship between skilled and less-skilled amateur archers in Hong Kong based on their use of psychological skills. The Test of Performance Strategies (TOPS; Thomas, Murphy, &amp; Hardy, 1999) was administered to 72 participants (42 skilled and 30 less-skilled; Mean age = 36.07, SD = 12.61, Range: 18.10 to 63.64 years). The TOPS is a 64-item self-report instrument that can assess a total of 16 psychological skills during practice and competition. Results from t-tests indicated statistically significant differences in the use of psychological skills automaticity during practice and competition between skilled and less-skilled archers. Two binary regression analyses were performed to further investigate the relationship between psychological skills use and skill level. Automaticity in competition and practice subscales were found to have statistically significant predictive powers in accounting for archers’ skill level achieved. The regression models indicated a range of 6.1% to 12.7% of variance accounted for skill level, and the model successfully classified 58.3% to 63.9% of cases per time. These findings link back to a number of skills learning theories that posit it is common to find the automatic stage of skill performance at the highest stage of learning (Haywood,2006). 本研究旨在暸解香港業餘射箭運動員技術水平與心理技能使用的關係。72名射箭運動員分為兩組(較高技術水平42人和一般水平30人) ，並填寫中文版運動表現策略量表 (TOPS) 。TOPS可檢測運動競賽和練習時所用的心理技能。t檢驗結果顯示心理 技能自動化(automaticity)在競賽和練習時的使用在不同技術水平的射手中有顯著差異。本文遂採用回歸分析以探討心理技能和射 手技術水平的預測和情形。研究結果發現心理技能自動化在競賽和練習的使用可有效預測射箭運動員的技術水平。

Strength and conditioning coaches (SCCs) are in a unique position to coach psychological skills and strategies (PSS) alongside physical training to improve athlete performance (Moore et al., 2019; Radcliffe et al., 2013, 2016). The primary purpose of this study was to examine the frequency of use of PSS within collegiate strength and conditioning. A modified version of the Strength and Conditioning Sport Psychology Questionnaire (Radcliffe et al., 2013) and the Mental Skills Questionnaire (Bull et al., 1996) was completed by collegiate SCCs (N = 364). The three PSS used most frequently by college SCCs were building self-confidence, motivation, and goal setting. No significant differences (p &gt; .01) were found between male strength and conditioning coaches (n = 290) and female strength and conditioning coaches (n = 74) in the frequency of use of PSS. SCCs who felt content knowledge was a barrier toward the use of psychological skills reported significantly lower (p &lt; .01) use of all PSS except for self-confidence. No significant difference in PSS use (p &gt;. 01) was found between coaches who listed lack of time as a barrier to coaching PSS with their athletes and those who did not. Advanced coaches with 10 or more years of coaching experience utilized self-talk skills more with their athletes (p &lt; .01) than novice coaches with less than four years of coaching experience. SCCs would benefit from sport psychology professional development opportunities to improve their knowledge in coaching PSS with their athletes. Additionally, future researchers may want to analyze the differences in how and why PSS are used by SCCs across all divisions of colleges and universities.

The present study aimed to investigate the effect of frequency of use of psychological skills (relaxation, emotional control, automatization, goal setting, imagery, self-talk, negative thoughts, and activation) on somatic and cognitive anxieties, as well as self-confidence in competitive elite athletes. The study employed a cross-sectional, relational, and ex post facto design. The non-probabilistic, intentional sample consisted of 64 competitive elite athletes with a mean age of 25.70 (SD = 4.53), participating in various sports disciplines. The Brazilian versions of the Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2 and the Test of Performance Strategies-2 were administered in the week preceding the competitions. Significant effects of frequency of use were observed for relaxation, automatization, and imagery on cognitive anxiety and somatic anxiety. Conversely, frequency of use in negative thoughts and emotional control demonstrated significant effects on both cognitive and somatic anxieties, as well as self-confidence. Additionally, the frequency of use in goal setting and activation showed a significant effect solely on self-confidence. These findings are of utmost importance to Sports Psychology in Brazil, suggesting that the frequency of utilizing psychological skills may influence competitive anxiety.