The translator's social networks in literary translation: A case study of Nicky Harman's translation of Jia Pingwa's novel Gaoxing

A Century of Chinese Literature in Translation (1919–2019): English Publication and Reception

This special issue of the International Journal of Literary Linguistics offers seven state-of-the-art contributions on the current linguistic study of literary translation. Although the articles are based on similar data – literary source texts and their translations – they focus on diverse aspects of literary translation, study a range of linguistic phenomena and utilize different methodologies. In other words, it is an important goal of this special issue to illuminate the current diversity of possible approaches in the linguistic study of translated literary texts within the discipline of translation studies. At the same time, new theoretical and empirical insights are opened to the study of the linguistic phenomena chosen by the authors of the articles and their representation or use in literary texts and translations. The analyzed features range from neologisms to the category of passive and from spoken language features to the representation of speech and multilingualism in writing. Therefore, the articles in this issue are not only relevant for the study of literary translation or translation theory in general, but also for the disciplines of linguistics and literary studies – or most importantly, for the cross-disciplinary co-operation between these three fields of study.The common theme that all these articles share is how the translation process shapes, transfers and changes the linguistic properties of literary texts as compared to their sources texts, other translations or non-translated literary texts in the same language and how this question can be approached in research. All articles provide new information about the forces that direct and affect translators’ textual choices and the previously formulated hypotheses about the functioning of such forces. The articles illustrate how translators may perform differently from authors and how translators’ and authors’ norms may diverge at different times and in different cultures. The question of how translation affects the linguistic properties of literary translations is approached from the viewpoint of previously proposed claims or hypotheses about translation. In the following, we will introduce these viewpoints for readers who are not familiar with the recent developments in translation studies. At the same time, we will shortly present the articles in this issue.

Literary translation is a type of translation, which requires a great commitment in realizing it. The differences that may be shared by the SL and TL make translation as a process a complicated and challenging one, especially when it comes to literary text translation. The messages, emotions and culture that the literature of a language shares sometimes seem almost difficult to be passed from one language to another one. This is a consequence of differences that the two different languages share in their construction and in their culture. This paper has been focused on the problems of equivalence while dealing with Albanian literary text translation to English, carried out by Albanian university students who study English Language and Literature. Empirical and qualitative are the research methods that have been used in this scientific paper. All these methods have verified the three hypotheses of this research as well as have found the answers to the questions on this research. In addition, the results reached from the three aforementioned research methods have helped in achieving the objectives and aims of this paper.The corpora that has been used in this research is the Albanian literary texts: “Ajkuna qan Omerin” from Kangë Kreshnikësh (Kreshink’s Songs). The text has been translated by Albanian students that study English Language and Literature at the University of Gjakova “Fehmi Agani”, Faculty of Philology, department of English language and Literature and at University of Prizren “Ukshin Hoti”, Faculty of Philology, department of English language and Literature. The translated versions were used as primary source materials for analysis. Another instrument used in this research is the questionnaire, consisting of two open-ended questions. One question aimed at identifying difficulties or challenges that students might have or face during their translation, whereas the second question asked them about the solutions that they might find when dealing with difficulties or challenges during Albanian literary text translation. Thus, the problems of equivalence during Albanian literary texts translation have been identified based on the analysis of students’ translation, and on their responses regarding difficulties or challenges that they faced or had during text translations. The work presents the most common strategies used by Albanian students during the process of literary text translation from Albanian into English.
 
 Received: 18 October 2021 / Accepted: 2 February 2022 / Published: 5 March 2022

The concepts of equivalence and correspondence has been two key concepts in translation studies and many theorists has attempted to define them; some also challenged the possibility of having equivalent texts at all. The present research aims to study the difference between correspondence and equivalence. Finding the corresponding words or phrases is prescribed in the literal and faithful translation and finding equivalents is employed in those methods that accentuate the meaning of the sentence. The main difference between equivalence and correspondence is that equivalence exists between two texts, but correspondence exists between lingual elements, words, phrases, expressions or syntactic structures in the text. For a translation to be successful, the source text and translated text should be generally equivalent. Literal translation may fulfill certain requirements , however, it cannot be considered as a useful method for all, for it does not lead to equivalence. But no translation is merely conducted based on one of these methods. Correspondence is sometimes used in the semantic method and at times the translator apply its equivalent in literal translation. So this is not an absolute dichotomy. In this sense, correspondences and equivalences coexist in all translation products. And therefore translation is always a blend of word correspondences and sense equivalences.

هر چند، ترجمه در جایگاه متن مقصد، گویی، هستی مستقلی ندارد، اما در ادبیات زبان مقصد می­تواند دارندة هویت و هستی باشد. مسئلة نقد و ارزیابی ترجمة متن‌های ادبی، به ویژه با تمرکز بر عنصرهای فرهنگی، امری ضروری است. تحلیل عنصرهای معنایی، یکی از شیوه­ های ارزیابی است که به بررسی روابط معنایی میان واژگان مبدأ و مقصد می­ پردازد. هدف از پژوهش حاضر، بررسی و نقد عملکرد مترجم بومی (بشیری) و غیربومی (کاستلو) رمان بوف­کور صادق هدایت بوده که با تکیه بر شاخصه‌های تحلیل عناصر و بار معنایی واژگان انجام شده‌است. شاخصه ­های مورد اشاره، به وسیلة نگارنده، در هفت رخ‌داد حفظ، تأکید، جبران، بسط، قبض، حذف و نویسه­ گردانی شرح داده شده‌اند. خطاهای مترجم‌ها نیز به صورت گسترده مورد بررسی قرار گرفتند. بر پایة یافته ­های پژوهش، واژه‌های حوزة دین، شغل‌ها و اشیاء جزء پرچالش­ترین مفاهیم برای هر دو مترجم بوده‌اند. همچنین، رخ‌دادهای «قبض» و «جبران» بیشترین و رخ‌دادهای «تأکید»، «حذف» و «خطا»، کمترین درصد فراوانی را در هر دو ترجمه داشته‌اند. نتیجه نهایی پژوهش، نمایانگر موفقیت بیشتر مترجم بومی در نگهداشت عنصرها و بار معنایی واژگان معادل­یابی‌­شده، ‌است. دلیل این امر را می­توان، آشنایی بیشتر مترجم بومی با فرهنگ مبدأ دانست.

In the context of "Chinese-Cultures-Go-Global," effectively communicating Chinese culture to the world has become a significant challenge. Numbers in literary and cultural texts are not merely quantitative markers but carriers of emotions, thoughts, and cognitive connotations, making the translation of numbers an increasingly important area of focus. Drawing on the prototype theory in cognitive linguistics, with an empirical survey, this paper offers an additional defense of Howard Goldblatt's translation of "六个姐姐 (liù gè jiě jie)" as "seven sisters". First, the paper explores and explains the rationale behind Goldblatt's choice of "seven sisters," arguing that "seven sisters" is more typical than "six sisters" because it embodies more core features of the source text, while the latter exhibits more peripheral ones of the source text. Second, the paper proposes a new standard for evaluating a literary translation: The core feature—fidelity to the source text—takes precedence over other factors; diversified versions of translations (i.e., "seven sisters" and "six sisters") belong to a family category of varied versions of the original. Evaluating the versions requires balancing core and peripheral features rather than solely emphasizing fuzzy fidelity to the original, which is adhered to by traditional translation studies, and the assessment of literary translation becomes more objective than before. By conducting a comparative analysis of the cultural connotations and cognitive characteristics of the source and target texts, this paper not only defends Goldblatt's translation choice but also provides new theoretical supports for translating numbers in literary texts and a new literary translation standard. It is both realistic and valuable for literary translation studies as well as constructive to cross-cultural communication.

This research investigates the application of Artificial Intelligence (AI) in Arabic-English literary translation, examining the complex intersection of technological capabilities, linguistic challenges, and ethical considerations. The study employs a mixed-methods approach combining computational analysis of translator-AI interactions, comparative assessment of machine and human translations, and qualitative interviews with professional translators and literary experts. Analysis of a diverse corpus of Arabic literary texts reveals that while neural machine translation (NMT) systems have made significant advances in handling basic linguistic structures, they continue to struggle with the cultural nuances, stylistic features, and contextual depth that characterize literary texts. The research identifies specific challenges in translating Arabic literary devices, metaphorical expressions, and culturally embedded concepts, while proposing targeted enhancements to existing NMT architectures. These include the development of specialized cultural knowledge modules, improved handling of Arabic morphological complexity, and hybrid human-AI workflows that leverage the strengths of both machine efficiency and human cultural interpretation. The study also addresses the ethical implications of AI integration in literary translation, examining issues of authorial voice preservation, translator agency, and cultural representation. The findings suggest that while AI can serve as a valuable assistive tool in the translation process, the translation of literary texts continues to require human oversight to ensure cultural authenticity, stylistic integrity, and ethical representation. This research contributes to the evolving understanding of AI's role in translation studies and offers practical frameworks for the responsible integration of technology in preserving the art of literary translation.

In the paper, we off er the translatological defi nition of the concept of culture, relevant for literary translation as a culturological phenomenon. We believe that the given defi nition combines the main aspects of its interpretation in culturology, socio-cultural anthropology, and intercultural communication. Such an approach allows outlining cultural background knowledge of the translator, which is necessary, on the one hand, for understanding of the text and, on the other, for the adequate translation of cultural information. The article analyses various theories of the understanding of culture and the tradition of its research in the translation studies, particularly in German translatology. The combination of interpretive, linguistic and translational turns in the cultural sciences is identifi ed as a perspective for translation studies. The attention focuses on the advantages and disadvantages of common interpretations. The paper considers the issues of meaningful and spatial defi nition of the concept of culture. The study characterizes the understanding of culture in the process of intercultural communication and the role of literary translation in it as well as clarifi es the peculiarities of the refl ection of culture in the literary text. The elements of culture that constitute translation problems are both extralinguistic concepts, i.e. phenomena and events that take place in a particular linguocultural community (the culture described by language), and “culturally conditioned” units of language as markers of a particular culture (the culture in language). In this research, we exemplify the possible ways of solving the problem of identifi cation and translation of cultural information in literary translation. It is important to complete a systematic description of culture in literary texts to enable its identifi cation at the macro- and microstructural levels. The article points out the need to consider the issue of identifi cation and translation of cultural information not only at the stage of implementation of the message in the language of translation, but also at the stages of decoding the source text and its recoding. The prospects for further research are outlined, which consist in the operationalization of the concept of culture at the empirical level, a systematic description of cultural manifestations in the source text, and a systematic approach to the reproduction of cultural information in the translated text. Key words: culture, translation studies, intercultural communication, literary translation, literary text.

Introduction: Cross-Cultural Reading

Literary translation remains a debated topic within translation studies. While consensus exists for technical translation regarding competence and training, opinions differ for literary translation. This research places the concept of literary translation competence in historical context by analyzing two examples spanning 40 years. In 1975, István Bart initiated a discussion in the Hungarian magazine Élet és Irodalom on the status of literary translation and translators in Hungary. The study reviews contemporary ideals from that period. It then presents the PETRA-E Framework, a recent project outlining the knowledge, skills, and attitudes expected from literary translators at different career stages. As both a competence model and educational guide, PETRA-E defines qualification criteria for evaluating translation competence. The aim is to summarize evolving views on literary translation competence through these two case studies.

Multimodal literature is not a new phenomenon. However, thanks to today’s technological advances, authors are further enabled to orchestrate and blend various available modes and resources to achieve cohesion and coherence within highly complex texts. By looking at the intersection of semiotics and translation studies, this paper focuses on the Greek translation of Mark Z. Danielewski’s House of Leaves. This novel incorporates multimodal and ergodic features that contribute to meaning creation and engage readers physically and mentally. In such a context, a literary translator has to traverse not only linguistic and cultural boundaries, but other modes and media employed for representation and meaning production, as well. Thus, one wonders whether the translator has to adopt new strategies when translating a multisemiotic text. Is the translation part of meaning-making? In an age of a plethora of means and forms of expression, what constitutes writing and reading, and by extension translation, is challenged, and literary texts –now often multimodal semiotic ensembles– invite all parties involved in an interpretive game. Through the prism of multimodal social semiotics, translation, and literary studies, and with a focus on their interaction and interconnectedness, this paper attempts to explore the new practices and forms of literary translation and the impact of the use of semiotic resources as meaning-making tools on the translation decisions made and the role of the translator. Is multimodal literacy just the tip of the iceberg of the changes brought to the field of translation studies?

This study examined the extent to which Quranic collocations fit into the general theory of collocation. It explored the importance of demystifying the collocational and phraseological theoretical base in order to facilitate the task of translators to deal more efficiently with collocation and phraseology from a Quranic perspective. This study assessed the difficulties and challenges of translating Quranic collocations from Arabic into English, focusing on five selected English translations of the Quran to evaluate the degree of faithfulness and accuracy in rendering the Quranic collocation into English. Despite the extensive research and interest that translation and collocations generate, there is little consensus and a degree of inconsistency regarding the way collocation and translation are defined and explained, making conclusive empirical evidence difficult to reach. Research on collocation has not quite managed to move the debate beyond merely defining and classifying collocations. Although publications and interest in collocation are prolific, too many grey areas still prevail, and many questions remain unanswered. There is a degree of stalemate in the phraseology debate, often yielding fragmented literature and inconclusive empirical evidence. Research on collocation remains stuck at the level of description, definition and prescription. Similarly, translation studies’ research scope is limited to comparative analysis of language pairs, examining their cross-linguistic and cultural differences. Throughout its long history, translation studies have never been free from conflicting views. Translation is one of the most researched topics and no other topic has involved theorists and practitioners as much as the translation debate, specifically those who claim that translation is an art and those who believe that translation is a science. Based on the purpose of the study, the nature of the problem and the research questions, qualitative data were collected using semi-structured interviews with translation specialists and Imams as users of English translations of the Quran, to gauge their views and perceptions regarding the accuracy and clarity of Quranic collocations translated in English. This was supported by qualitative analysis of a sample of Quranic collocations from the five selected English translations of the Quran. The findings suggest that the translation of the Quran in English is still a work in progress. Views are polarised between those who advocate as close a rendering of the Quranic text as possible and those who believe in a ‘natural style’. Findings revealed that literal translation appears to be the preferred method in translating Quranic collocation and that there is some dissatisfaction among interview participants regarding the quality of English translations of the Quran, which are deemed to be useful but flawed, in conveying accurately the meaning of collocations. This view is supported by the text analysis and literature findings. Participants were unanimous that the proliferation of translations of the Quran is positive but stressed that quantity does not always mean quality. Findings from interviews suggested that there is little co-operation and coordination between the different translators or translation bodies regarding the translation of the Quran. Most participants agreed that the type and nature of English language used by some translators of the Quran is often archaic and not user friendly which makes it hard to understand. Excessive use of footnotes in some translations can be a source of distraction. Findings indicated loss of the implicit meaning of Quranic collocations is caused by insufficient knowledge of the Quran and failure to check reliable exegesis as a source of interpretation of Quranic collocations. Findings revealed that linguistic competence in Arabic and English is not a licence to translate the Quran. Knowledge of the religious, rhetorical and cultural background is necessary in order to produce a readable and meaningful translation of the Quran. This study is pertinent because it has several practical implications. Firstly, it will benefit translators of the Quran by providing fresh insights on how to deal with some of the challenges of translating Quranic collocations. Secondly, it will provide a platform for further research on translating Quranic collocations and addressing the current shortcomings. This study has also expanded the extant literature on translating Quranic collocations to benefit future researchers.

While Translation Studies has started investigating the potential of translation technology in literary translation, the research has largely focused on optimizing product quality and bypassed the experiences of literary translators. This study contributes to filling that gap by means of a survey (n=72) and interviews (n=7) among literary translators with Finnish as a working language. Combining quantitative and qualitative analysis, we investigate what tools are used by literary translators, at what stages of the translation process, and for what purposes, and what factors are linked to technology use. We identify three types of translation processes (“from scratch”, “TM use”, and “MT post-editing”) with some individual and source-text-specific variation, and observe that translation technology use is more likely for translators who also use it for non-literary translation. The results also draw attention to literary translators’ different processes and the variety of purposes for which the different tools are used. The results have implications for publishers’ workflows, usability, and literary translators’ agency and profession.

As the latest American Comparative Literature Association reports (the ACLA state of the discipline reports) suggest, following the “translational turn” in comparative literature, novel intersections between translation studies and comparative literature have paved the way for further negotiations between these two subjects in a promising way. The aim of this article is to discuss the changing roles of translation and comparative studies of (translated) literature to reconsider the supposedly close relationship between the two adjacent fields in the Turkish context. We agree with Gürsel Aytaç that the intersection between translation and comparative literature occurs in literary translation. Literary translations are interventions of source texts into the receiving polysystem, meaningfully affecting the host culture and its literary system. Therefore, we argue that literary translations as rewritings should serve more as an object of investigation in the field of translation studies as well as comparative literature. We also argue that unorthodox approaches in comparative studies of translated literature can make these disciplines come together in more fruitful ways. The present study therefore encourages border-crossings in comparative literature and translation studies to open a space for new-fangled approaches in comparative studies of translated literature.

Anna Holmwood, a famous British translator, has long been devoted to the translation and promotion of contemporary Chinese literature, and has made remarkable contributions to the international communication of Chinese literature into the English language literature context. Based on Holmwood’s translated works of contemporary Chinese literature, Holmwood’s view of translation can be analyzed and explored in terms of selection of original works, translation strategy and translator’s subjectivity. Taking Holmwood’s translation of Chinese literature as an example, the experience of orientation towards the publication market in the communication region and conforming to the reading and aesthetic habits of the targeted readers can be drawn from, which will be beneficial for the further promotion of the communication of Chinese literature overseas, and form a historical reference to translator studies and Chinese literature translation studies on the communication of excellent Chinese literary works in the context of international sinology.