The Tragedy and Horror of Human Trafficking of Children and Youth

"Immigration and Criminal Law in the European Union: the Legal Measures and Social Consequences of Criminal Law in Member States on Trafficking and Smuggling in Human Beings" published on 01 Jan 2006 by Brill | Nijhoff.

A Message from the EditorIntroduction to the Special Issue on Human Trafficking Michael R. Hall, Sabella Abidde, and José de Arimatéia da Cruz In November 2000, the United Nations adopted the "Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons Especially Women and Children, supplementing the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime." It stated, "'Trafficking in persons' shall mean the recruitment, transportation, transfer, harboring, or receipt of persons, by means of the threat or use of force or other forms of coercion, of abduction, of fraud, of deception, of the abuse of power or of a position of vulnerability or of the giving or receiving of payments or benefits to achieve the consent of a person having control over another person, for the purpose of exploitation. Exploitation shall include, at a minimum, the exploitation of the prostitution of others or other forms of sexual exploitation, forced labor or services, slavery or practices similar to slavery, servitude or the removal of organs."1 The 7th INTERPOL Global Conference on Human Trafficking and Migrant Smuggling was held in Buenos Aires, Argentina, in September 2019—three months before the 37th Annual Association of Global South Studies (AGSS) Conference held in Argentina's capital in December 2019. The INTERPOL conference attracted 750 participants from ninety-seven countries who focused on disrupting the "business model" of criminal enterprises behind human trafficking and migrant smuggling. In her opening remarks at the INTERPOL conference, Patricia Bullrich, Argentina's Minister of Security, described human trafficking and migrant smuggling as "the strong over the weak—those who exploit the vulnerability for their own profit." According to Bullrich, "It is important that we understand the essence of the crime, [End Page ix] not only to fight the offenders, but also to develop our ability to return freedom and peace of mind to all those who have suffered as victims."2 While attending the AGSS conference, Professor of Political Science Sabella Abidde at Alabama State University, Professor of Political Science José de Arimatéia da Cruz at Georgia Southern University, and Professor of History Michael R. Hall at Georgia Southern University—encouraged and influenced by the success and popularity of the recent INTERPOL conference—initiated a project that would examine the issue of human trafficking in Africa, Latin America, and the Caribbean. Initially, the plan was to host a series of panels at the 38th annual AGSS conference to be held in Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada, in October 2020. Due to travel restrictions related to the COVID-19 pandemic, however, the conference was canceled. As a result, we approached Ryan Alexander, the editor of the Journal of Global South Studies (JGSS), with a plan for an issue of the journal dedicated to the theme of human trafficking in Africa, Latin America, and the Caribbean. The fruition of this endeavor are the six articles by nine scholars from multiple disciplines included in this issue of the journal. In "Theorizing Human Trafficking and Unfree Labor," Julia Harnoncourt from the University of Luxembourg and Miguel Paredes from the University of Vienna examine human trafficking in the context of labor exploitation. The authors explain that unfree labor transpires when the workers cannot sell their labor freely. Significantly, the unfree labor condition involves a situation in which the laborer cannot end their labor relation. After placing their research in historical perspective, the authors examine the Palermo Protocol and the application of laws against human trafficking in two case studies: Bolivia and Brazil. In "Paradoxes and Anomalies in Caribbean Anti-Trafficking Law and Practice," Jason Haynes from the University of the Birmingham assesses existing state practice on human trafficking in the Caribbean. Haynes' study is based on empirical data collected from interviews with 50 government officials and nongovernmental organization representatives in twelve Caribbean nations. In "Comparative Analysis of Human Trafficking in Caribbean and African Islands from the Annual Trafficking in Persons Report," Kathleen M. Vogel from Arizona State University examines current trends in human trafficking in African and Caribbean islands. Especially relevant is the author's discussion of the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on human trafficking. In "Sun, Sand, Sex, and Safari: The Interplay of Sex Tourism and Global Inequalities [End Page...

“Human trafficking” is a problem of which the Thai society has very little understanding. While it is largely a domestic problem, it is often necessary, in an attempt to understand the problem, to rely on foreign research works that collect raw data and information from Thai government officials, Thai academics, officers of international organizations based in Thailand, and local non-governmental organizations (NGOs). “Human Trafficking in Thailand: Current Issues, Trends, and the Role of the Thai Government” is another piece that has been worked on from outside of the country. Even though the author, Siroj Sorajjakool, may call Thailand his motherland, presently he is a professor of religion and of counseling and family science at Loma Linda University, USA, whose Center for Spiritual Life and Wholeness funds this research. In this book, Sorajjakool attempts to find answers with regards to (1) the format of human trafficking in Thailand, (2) the efforts by the government to solve the problem, and (3) the areas and the factors involved in human trafficking in Thailand, by interviewing 25 key informants from Thai government agencies, academic institutions, the United Nations, Thailand, non-governmental organizations, and some of the human trafficking victims themselves. The structure of “Human Trafficking in Thailand” consists of three parts. First, in “Understanding the Current Situation”, which encompasses Chapters 1 and 2 of the book, an overall picture of the human trafficking problem in Thailand is painted by synthesizing information from three reports, including the reports of the U.S. Department of State, the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC), and the website Humantraffickinf.org. This part also addresses the issue where Thailand is both at the sending and the receiving ends of the migration flow, a labor issue that also leads to the human trafficking problem. Second, “Exploring Types of Trafficking”, Chapters 3 to 7 explains the forms of human trafficking in Thailand, which include labors in the fishery and related industries, labors in the agricultural sector, domestic workers, sex workers, child labors, and children trafficking. Third, issues with regards to “Combating Human Trafficking” are covered in Chapters 8 and 9. Here, the role of the government in solving the human trafficking problem is touched upon, and the conclusion of the research as to the theoretical reasoning of the existing problem is explored. In my opinion, as the head of the research project “Modern Slavery: Inside the Business of Sex Trade of GMS Women Entering into Thailand”, which has received funding from Thailand Institute of Justice (Public Organization), this book has synthesized the issues of human trafficking in Thailand and should not be missed by those who are interested in the issues. The author is able to put together the current situations of the problem and the efforts by the government agencies to confront them. These are interestingly and systematically composed in ways that enable readers to understand the human trafficking issues in Thailand. However, drawn by the author are a conclusion that links human trafficking to greed as well as a suggestion that “consumerism” and “materialism” are the factors leading to human trafficking, and, therefore, “sufficiency economy” is an economic philosophy that should be able to solve the problem for the Thai society. These suggestions remain arguable, as the research results derived from the “Modern Slavery” project suggest that some women who are willing to sell their body in exchange for money do so out of necessity, not for extravagant desires. Not only, as commonly understood, are many of them financially poor, but they lack the opportunities to progress in life as well.

Human trafficking is often confused with human smuggling. Both phenomena may be regarded as undesirable consequences of globalization. Smugglers as well as traffickers make use of other people’s desire to improve their lives by building up a better future elsewhere. Yet there are fundamental differences as well. Human smuggling primarily relates to illegal immigration and the violation of immigration laws. Human smugglers move people and provide a bridge between poor or dangerous countries and richer, safer ones. Some may have humanitarian motives to save political refugees or to help relatives or friends to build up a new life. Others unscrupulously abuse dependent illegal immigrants by demanding high prices and providing bad or even perilous travel arrangements. Usually the relationship between smugglers and smuggled persons ends after the transport to the country of destination. In human trafficking, the situation is different. Human trafficking often, but not necessarily, involves border crossing. After arrival, trafficked persons must produce profit for the traffickers. Their relationships with the traffickers, or with organizations or individuals who have paid for their delivery, are longer term, victim-exploiter relationships, in which the human rights of the victim are being abused (Kelly and Regan 2000). According to the trafficking definition in the UN Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, trafficking is the recruitment, transportation, transfer, harboring or receipt of persons, using means like threat or force, deception, coercion, abuse of power or of a position of vulnerability, with the purpose of exploitation (UN 2000, Article 3a). Many countries follow the aforementioned distinction between human smuggling and human trafficking in their national penal codes. However, in practice, these two phenomena can be difficult to distinguish and may be intertwined. Assisted illegal immigration may precede exploitation, as some smuggled illegal immigrants, who travel voluntarily to other countries, end up as trafficking victims in debt bondage and bad labor conditions only later on. Even the issue of mutual consent, common in human smuggling, is not always decisive in distinguishing between smuggling and trafficking (Herman 2006; Van Liempt and Doomernik 2006); trafficking also usually starts with a consensual agreement between the trafficker and the future victim (Andrees 2008). When individuals have agreed to come to another country to work in the sex industry or in other sectors, their fate may not become clear until after arrival, when they are gradually forced to do other work than they had agreed upon, or under very different circumstances than

Asean Convention Against Trafficking In Persons, Especially Women and Children is a convention that has been ratified in Indonesia into Law Number 12 of 2017 containing opposition to trafficking in persons, especially women and children and an important role and duties of the state in order to fight against trafficking in persons. The protection of women as a victim of trafficking in persons is contained in Article 14 which contains 14 points of tasks that must be carried out by the state in protecting victims of trafficking in persons. Prevention of trafficking in persons that must be carried out by the state is contained in Article 11 which contains 5 points of preventive measures. The fact that happened in Indonesia, this regulation has not been realized and the benefits have not been felt by the peoples especially women who have been involved and being victims of trafficking in persons. New regulations that are in line with international law and protect the vistims have not been made as a follow-up to this convention, and implementation and monitoring are still at a low level

Indonesia is a country that attracts the attention of foreigners to visit Indonesia. The number of foreign enthusiasts to visit the territory of Indonesia makes immigration a gateway for a country that is very picky in allowing foreigners to enter Indonesia. procedures that are deemed too difficult, individuals appear who can make it easier for foreigners to enter Indonesian territory. because of this, many people take advantage of it to gain profits by committing crimes in the form of human trafficking and people smuggling. This study describes the handling of foreigners who are victims of human trafficking and people smuggling in accordance with existing laws and regulations. In addition, the implementation of statutory regulations in terms of handling foreigners who become victims of trafficking in persons and people smuggling has been carried out by the Immigration Office in the form of placing foreigners in the Immigration Detention Center or other designated places without being subject to Immigration Administrative Actions and also different handling with detainees for other cases, as well as managing files and data from victims of trafficking in persons and people smuggling so that they can be immediately repatriated to their countries of origin. In repatriating victims to their countries of origin, immigration cooperates with the ministry of foreign affairs to coordinate with state representatives in Indonesia.

While the punishment of acts covered by the definition of smuggling of migrants (SM) started in the 1970's when the French frontiers were closed to labour immigration, only in March 2001 did members of the French Parliament start to deal with trafficking in human beings (THB) with the aim of protecting human dignity. The French Act criminalising THB was thus drafted in 2003, at the same time that international texts, i.e., UN and European texts, which are at present the main references in THB, were being negotiated and adopted. This chapter analyses the interactions between French and international texts at the origin of the standards governing SM and THB. National and international texts introduce SM and THB as two separate offences, notably distinguished by the interests they protect and by the status granted to smuggled and trafficked persons. Keywords: administrative Law; criminal; European texts; French Act; labour immigration; protecting human dignity; smuggling of migrants (SM); trafficking in human beings (THB); United Nations (UN)

The state laws of the Republic of Serbia recognize trafficking in human beings as a form of organized criminal activity, and different acts treat the prevention, repression and punishment of trafficking in human beings as well as the protection of the witnesses and the injured persons, before, in the course of and after the criminal prosecution. The Council of the Government of the Republic of Serbia for the fight against human trafficking was first constituted in December 2005, as an expert, advisory body of the Government. The Constitution of the Republic of Serbia from 2006 deals with the issue of human trafficking in the provision of Article 26: “It is expressly forbidden that no one can be held in slavery or in a position similar to slavery, that is, every form of human trafficking and forced labor under which it is considered sexual or economic exploitation of persons in a disadvantaged position”. The Criminal Code sanctioned: Human Trafficking (Art. 388); Trafficking in children for adoption (Art. 389); Establishment of slavery and transportation of persons in slavery (Art. 390). People smuggling is criminalized as a separate criminal offense under Unauthorized Crossing of the State Border and People Smuggling (Art. 350). The aims of this work are to indicate all relevant regulations that are applied against human trafficking in Serbia as well as to show the cooperation of Serbia as a candidate country and EU accession with other countries in the fight against human trafficking and the cooperation of state authorities and non-governmental organizations in preventing human trafficking in Serbia and abroad. At last, the cases of migrants and human trafficking described in the media are presented and what kind of attention these criminological phenomenons are causing in Serbia.

In order to understand the essence of the crime, two issues have to be taken into account: not only do we analyse features of the perpetrator, but also the victim’s behaviour. Both measures have to be recognised in the light of their mutual relations. In such a case, victimology is instrumental for criminology. It answers the fundamental question: who and why becomes a victim of a crime? It is victimology that draws our attention to a post-crime victimisation problem in the psychological, social and legal aspects. These issues are particularly vital in the case of human trafficking. First, the victim of the crime has to be defined. Over the centuries, the word ‘victim’ came to have an additional meaning. Nowadays, the legal definition of a victim in many countries typically includes the following: it is a person who suffered direct or threatened physical, emotional or pecuniary harm as a result of the commission of a crime. In the Polish legal system, a legal definition of a victim is given in the Polish Charter of Victims’ Rights, whereas the Polish penal law speaks of an aggrieved party and defines it in Article 49 of the Criminal Procedure Code. However, one fact draws our attention. The aggrieved or those objectively recognised as aggrieved do not agree with such a qualification. Let us take a closer look at the reasons why they see themselves in a different role. There is no doubt that one of the reasons is the fact that victims are often qualified as persons offending the law, as criminals. Another problem, is the victims’ return to their previous life situation, which had led them to being recruited by a human trafficker. We also need to point out that the relations between human traffickers and their victims are extremely complex. However, the key issue is that there is an agreement for a crime. The decision-making processes have to be analysed. The victims of human trafficking find themselves in a situation where they have a considerable limitation of free decision making. One of the major examples reflecting these problems that always takes place in a compulsory situation in the wide sense of this expression is job undertaking which leads to the abuse of the potential worker’s situation. A very specific example is a job agency. The question that appears is when we should speak of an unlawfully acting job agent, and when we can start calling this human trafficking? Is every illegal job agency dealing with human trafficking? What is the difference between these two? And finally when does a worker become a victim and an aggrieved party? What types of slavery and slaves exist today? bounded labour affects at least 20 milion people around the world. People become bounded labourers by taking or being tricked into taking a loan for as little as the cost of medicines for a sick child. To repay the debt, many are forced to work overtime, seven days a week, up to 365 days a year. They receive basic food and shelter as ‘payment’ for their work, but may never pay off the loan, which can be passed down for another generation; eaily and forced marriage affects women and girls who are married without choice and are forced into lives of servitude often accompanied by physical violence; forced labour affects people who are illegally recruited by individuals, governments or political parties and forced to work usually under threat of violence or other penalties; slavery by descent is where people are either born into a slave class or are from a group that the society views as suited to be used as slave labour; trafficking involves the transport and/or trade of people: ‘woman, children and men’, from one area to another for the purpose of forcing them into slavery conditions; worst forms of child labour affects an estimated 179 million children around the world in work that is harmful to their health and welfare. Children work on the land, in households as domestic workers, in factories making products such as matches, fireworks and glassware, on the streets as beggars, in the outdoor industry, brick kilns, mines, construction sector, in bars, restaurants and tourist establishments, in sexual exploitation, as soldiers. It seems that pursuant to the Employment and Unemployment Countering Act (Ustawa o zatrudnieniu i przeciwdziałaniu bezrobociu) a model contrary to the one in the act can create a criminological model of modern human trafficking. It would be then running a business to gain financial benefits in the way that the businessperson exploits the position of the aggrieved party and provides the future employer with employees. The latter group, however, even if agreeing to move abroad, becomes completely dependant on the employer which is often combined with a deprivation of liberty, because they have no possibility to choose their place of staying or withdraw from the previous agreement. A number of international regulations, e.g. the Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children which supplements the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime of 2000, the Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child on the Sale of Children, Child Prostitution and Child Pornography of 2000, the Slavery Convention of 1926 together with a Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery, the Slave Trade, and Institutions and Practices Similar to Slavery dated l956 show, that the issue under discussion still remains a contemporary problem, and needs regulations aiming at finding relevant solutions. There can be no doubts in the light of the nullum crimen sine lege certa that a precise description of the crime is essential. Only a precise definition of a separate crime of human trafficking will enable to recognise the scope of the problem and will create internationally accepted circumstances to overcome it. Such a definition must include at least: acts: recruitment, transportation, transfer, harbouring or receipt of a person; means: threat to use or the use of force or other forms of coercion, of abduction, fraud, deception, abuse of power or a position of vulnerability; purposes: forced labour or services, slavery slavery-like practices or servitude. Everyone, government and non-governmental organisations, must focus on the crime which must be precisely described including a detailed description of a victim. It is highly urgent and important to harmonise all legislative measures in order to prevent human trafficking, which would guarantee an effective protection of victims and prosecution of criminals.

The new un trafficking protocol

Abstract. Trafficking is a serious problem and occupies the second largest industry in the world. Trafficking in persons is a crime against humanity. Its activities include the act of recruiting, transporting, transferring, storing or receiving a person using violence, coercion or otherwise for the purpose of exploiting them. In order to prevent and eradicate trafficking in persons, especially women and children, Member Countries of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations is known as ASEAN making an international agreement which regulates trafficking in persons, especially women and children, namely the ASEAN Convention Against Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children (ACTIP). The purpose of this study was to determine the implementation of legal protection against victims of trafficking in Indonesia in relation to ACTIP. The approach method in this research is normative juridical. The research specification used in this study is Descriptive Analysis. The data in this research were obtained through literature study or document study. Data analysis method in this research is qualitative normative analysis. The study concluded that some of the provisions contained in ACTIP protect victims of trafficking in persons. The implementation of legal protection for victims of trafficking in persons by Indonesia has not been effective. Keywords: Human Trafficking, Legal Protection, ACTIP Abstrak. Perdagangan orang merupakan sebuah masalah serius dan menempati industri terbesar kedua di dunia. Perdagangan orang merupakan tindakan kriminal terhadap kemanusian. Kegiatannya meliputi tindakan perekrutan, pengangkutan, mentransfer, menyimpan atau menerima seseorang manusia menggunakan kekerasan, pemaksaan atau lainnya untuk keperluan mengeksploitasi mereka. Dalam rangka mencegah dan memberantas perdagangan orang, khusunya perempuan dan anak Negara Anggota dari Perhimpu

Purpose This paper aims to explore the relationship between human trafficking brokers and trafficking victims by using examples from both the international labour and human organ trafficking industries. It proposes an evolution in the brokerage process from geographic to online networks and how this alters the nature of the relationships between parties. The study aims to expand the understanding of contemporary trafficking brokerage networks in developing areas. Design/methodology/approach The paper opted for an ethnographic study which involved living among trafficking victims in 21 developing countries during the period of 2008-2015; 17 cases are presented as exemplars of the trafficking industry environment, told from the perspective of both trafficking victims and the brokers who have profited from them. The data were complemented by commentary, which developed common themes across both labour and human organ trafficking. Findings The paper provides insights about how change in the brokerage process is brought about by the shift from geographic to online networks. It suggests that trafficking operations have learned how to use online social media and the dark Web. Moreover, it illustrates the impact of these networks on the power imbalance in human trafficking and the experience of its victims. Research limitations/implications The study is limited to labour and human organ trafficking in developing nations, but the concepts may have wider implications in other forms of human trafficking. Practical implications The paper includes implications for the development of a framework to understand the impact of online trafficking networks. Originality/value This paper fulfils an identified need to study how human trafficking networks are evolving in the digital age.

Legislative support for combating human trafficking is represented by such documents as the UN Convention against Trafficking in Human Beings and the Exploitation of Prostitution by Third Parties of 2.12.1949, the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights of 16.12.1966, the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women. December 18, 1979, Declaration of European Recommendations on Effective Measures to Prevent Trafficking in Women for the Purpose of Sexual Exploitation, 1997, Council of Europe Joint Action Document, 1997, UN Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, November 15, 2000, Protocol on the prevention, prevention and punishment of trafficking in human beings, especially women and children, the Recommendation of the Committee of Ministers of the Council of Europe “On sexual exploitation, pornography, prostitution and trafficking in human beings and adolescents” and others. National anti-trafficking legislation includes: the Constitution of Ukraine, the Criminal Code of Ukraine, the Laws of Ukraine: “On Combating Trafficking in Human Beings”, “On Preventing and Combating Domestic Violence”, the Resolution of the Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine of February 24, 2016. № 111 “On approval of the State Social Program to Combat Trafficking in Human Beings until 2020”, Order of the Ministry of Education and Science of 08.04.2016 № 405 “On approval of the action plan of the Ministry of Education and Science to combat trafficking in human beings until 2020”.Modern international legal regulation of combating trafficking in human beings includes a fairly large array of various legal acts, including: the UN Convention against Trafficking in Human Beings and the Exploitation of Prostitution by Third Parties, the UN Convention on Transnational Crime and the Protocol to Prevent and Suppress trafficking in human beings, especially women and children, and the ILO Convention, the Convention on the Rights of the Child and the Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child on the sale of children, child prostitution and child pornography, etc. And although international norms are quite clear, there are still gaps in that implementation. Yes, the Palermo Protocol calls for a comprehensive approach to combating human trafficking, but it is still not fully implemented. States often try to combat trafficking only in terms of migration or solely in terms of combating crime on their territory, but such a shameful phenomenon as human trafficking is unfortunately a global problem and must be addressed systematically and jointly. States must recognize and implement all international treaties relating to trafficking in human beings in order to make every effort to combat this problem. Ukraine has launched a large-scale anti-trafficking campaign in the post-Soviet space. Since independence, national legislation aimed at eliminating trafficking in human beings has been developed based on international best practices, and a set of measures to improve the effectiveness of combating the threat of trafficking and ensuring the security of the country's population has been implemented within the framework of state programs to combat trafficking and illegal migration. In order to minimize the phenomenon of human trafficking, efforts are being consolidated at the regional and interagency levels by strengthening international cooperation and implementing best practices.

Accountability for trafficking in persons remains limited. The consequences of such continued impunity include limited access to justice and effective remedies for trafficked persons and continuing failures of prevention and protection. UN Security Council Resolution 2331 (2016) recognises that 'trafficking in persons entails the violation or abuse of human rights, and underscoring that certain acts or offences associated with trafficking in persons in the context of armed conflict may constitute war crimes'. Further, it recognises that '[...] trafficking in persons in areas affected by armed conflict and post-conflict situations can be for the purpose of various forms of exploitation'. Despite this recognition, limited progress has been made in promoting accountability and access to justice for victims of trafficking in situations of conflict. This article deals with trafficking in persons in conflict and the failures of protection and accountability; the application of international criminal law to trafficking in persons; child trafficking and the continuing invisibility of child victims; the principle of non-punishment of victims of trafficking; and the gender dimension of trafficking: moving beyond stereotypes.

Human Trafficking: A Global Perspective. By Louise Shelley. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010. 341 pp., $26.99 paperback (ISBN-13: 978-0-521-13087-5). In Human Trafficking: A Global Perspective , Louise Shelley sketches the regionally diverse practices and realities of human trafficking across Africa, Asia, Eastern and Western Europe, Latin America, Central Asia, and Russia. Although she focuses her attention primarily on human trafficking for sexual exploitation, she also addresses organ trafficking, labor trafficking, human smuggling, and the trafficking of children into adoption markets or for use as beggars or soldiers. Utilizing a comparative and historical perspective, Shelley's aim is to note the economic, social, and political context and consequences of human trafficking, examine the role of organized crime in trafficking enterprises, and reveal the various business models of human trafficking networks. Shelley demonstrates that human trafficking networks operate in such regionally diverse ways that any attempt to successfully eradicate them will require equally varied and context-specific solutions coordinated across a multitude of anti-trafficking actors. Part one includes two chapters that are especially well suited for those new to human trafficking as it outlines for the reader in very broad strokes the multiple and intersecting factors that have contributed to an increase in human trafficking since the 1980s. It also traces the social and political consequences of the trade in humans. Because the focus is on broadly sketching “the rise and costs of human …