The term consciousness and impressive evidence for cephalopod awareness

IntroductionStudies have shown age-related differences in numerical cognition, for example, in the level of numerosity comparison ability. Moreover, some studies point out individual differences in the cognitive strategies employed during the performance of numerosity comparison tasks and reveal that they are related to the aging process. One probable cause of these differences is the level of cognitive functioning. The aim of our study was to determine the relationships among numerosity comparison ability, the cognitive strategies utilized in the performance of numerosity comparison tasks and the general cognitive functioning in older people.MethodsForty-seven elderly people participated in the study. The participants were examined using overall cognitive functioning scales and computerized numerosity comparison task.ResultsThe results showed many correlations between the participants’ level of cognitive functioning and the percent of correct responses (PCR) and response time (RT) during numerosity comparison, as well as with the cognitive strategies applied by the participants. Task correctness was positively related to the level of performance in the attention and executive function tasks. In contrast, the long-term memory resources index and visuospatial skills level were negatively correlated with RT regarding numerosity comparison task performance. The level of long-term memory resources was also positively associated with the frequency of use of more complex cognitive strategies. Series of regression analyses showed that both the level of general cognitive functioning and the cognitive strategies employed by participants in numerosity comparison can explain 9–21 percent of the variance in the obtained results.DiscussionIn summary, these results showed significant relationships between the level of cognitive functioning and proficiency in numerosity comparison measured in older people. Moreover, it has been shown that cognitive resources level is related to the strategies utilized by older people, which indicates the potential application for cognitive strategy examinations in the development of new diagnostic tools.

Sport activity can be a moderator of change in the level of cognitive and executive functions. This research sample consisted of 71 men aged 22.66 ± 1.91 years. This group was split into two subgroups: nonathletes (n = 26) and athletes (n = 45). The athletes included open skill sport athletes (n = 21) and closed skill sport athletes (n = 24). We used a standardized S-test to detect the level of cognitive functions, a standardized EPQ-R questionnaire to find out the degree of neuroticism and a standardized IVE questionnaire to measure the level of impulsivity. For data processing, we used the Kruskal–Wallis test following the Mann–Whitney test. To calculate the effect of size differences we used the coefficients η2 and r. Our research showed a higher level of cognitive function of athletes compared to nonathletes. More detailed data analysis showed that open skill sport disciplines are influential. There is also a negative relationship between the level of cognitive function and the degree of impulsivity and neuroticism. It seems that sport activity, specifically open skill sport disciplines, has the potential to increase the cognitive functions of young adult men. Personality traits—neuroticism and impulsivity—have a negative relationship with the level of cognitive functions of young men.

In aging societies, more people become vulnerable to experiencing cognitive decline. Simultaneously, the role of grandparenthood is central for older adults and their families. Our study investigates inequalities in the level and trajectories of cognitive functioning among older adults, focusing on possible intersectional effects of social determinants and grandparenthood as a life course transition that may contribute to delaying cognitive decline. Using longitudinal data from the Survey of Health, Aging, and Retirement in Europe, we analyzed a sample of 19,953 individuals aged 50-85 without grandchildren at baseline. We applied multilevel analysis of individual heterogeneity and discriminatory accuracy to investigate variation in cognitive functioning across 48 intersectional strata, defined by sex/gender, migration, education, and occupation. We allowed the impact of becoming a grandparent on cognitive functioning trajectories to vary across strata by including random slopes. Intersectional strata accounted for 17.43% of the overall variance in cognitive functioning, with most of the stratum-level variation explained by additive effects of the stratum-defining characteristics. Transition to grandparenthood was associated with higher cognitive functioning, showing a stronger effect for women. Stratum-level variation in the grandparenthood effect was modest, especially after accounting for interactions between grandparenthood and the stratum-defining variables. This study highlights the importance of social determinants for understanding heterogeneities in older adults' level of cognitive functioning and its association with the transition to grandparenthood. Cumulative disadvantages negatively affect cognitive functioning, hence adopting an intersectional lens is useful to decompose inequalities and derive tailored interventions to promote equal healthy aging.

We aimed to investigate whether socioeconomic position (SEP) in childhood has an effect on the level of cognitive performance and the rate of cognitive decline in older adults. We performed a prospective cohort study of individuals enrolled in a multicenter population-based study, SHARE (Survey of Health, Ageing and Retirement in Europe). Interviews were conducted in 6 waves at approximately 2-year intervals and included examinations of cognitive performance (memory, verbal fluency, delayed recall) and measurements of childhood SEP (participants' household characteristics at the age of 10 years). We estimated the associations of SEP with the level of cognitive performance using linear regression and the relation to the rate of cognitive decline with mixed-effects models. This study included 20,244 participants from 16 European countries (median age at baseline 71 years, 54% women). Adverse childhood SEP was associated with a lower level of baseline cognitive performance. This association was attenuated after adjustment for clinical and social risk factors but remained statistically significant. Childhood SEP was not related to the rate of cognitive decline. Variation in childhood SEP helps to explain differences in cognitive performance between older people, but not the rate of decline from their previous level of cognition. Strategies to protect cognitive aging should be applied early in life.

This thesis project examined the behaviour and emotional problems and social functioning of adolescents with Autistic or Asperger’s Disorder and the relationship between these two factors. Furthermore, associations between these factors and individual characteristics including gender, age, level of cognitive function and Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) diagnosis (that is, Autistic or Asperger’s Disorder) were examined. The research project also investigated the level of agreement between ratings of behaviour and emotional problems and social functioning provided by self, parent and teacher report. Forty-five participants aged 12-18 years were recruited from schools from Melbourne and rural Victoria and through organisations such as the Monash University Centre for Developmental Psychiatry & Psychology, Autism Victoria and Interchange. Adolescents, parents and teachers provided report by completing Achenbach System of Empirically Based Assessment, Developmental Behaviour Checklist and Social Skill Rating System questionnaires. Adolescents with Autistic and Asperger’s Disorder were found to present with high rates of a range of comorbid behaviour and emotional problems, including internalising and externalising difficulties. No significant differences were found in the reported rates of behaviour and emotional problems experienced by adolescents with Autistic Disorder and with Asperger’s Disorder. Neither age nor cognitive function were associated with the levels of behaviour and emotional problems reported. Current findings demonstrate that the difficulties associated with ASD are not limited to the core features of the autism spectrum. Significant discrepancy occurred between self, parent and teacher ratings of behaviour and emotional problems and social functioning. Levels of agreement varied according to the informants being compared and phenomena being examined. Less agreement was found between ratings of internalising symptoms, between adolescents and teachers and between parents and teachers. These findings are consistent with previous research in which low levels of inter-rater agreement have generally been found between multiple informants. This may reflect the differing opinions of informants or variations in adolescents’ behaviour across environmental contexts, such as school and home. The level of social functioning exhibited by adolescents with Autistic or Asperger’s Disorder (who have average or above cognitive abilities, or a mild degree of intellectual disability) does not vary according to their ASD diagnosis, age or level of verbal or perceptual cognitive functioning. Associations between low levels of social function and a range of behaviour and emotional problems were found. Such findings are consistent with observations that poor social functioning is associated with higher levels of behaviour and emotional problems. The social impairments that accompany Autistic or Asperger’s Disorder appear to be associated with additional behaviour and emotional problems regardless of age and cognitive function. Together, these findings suggest that health professionals and teachers need to be mindful of the possibility of these comorbid difficulties when working with adolescents with ASD and their families. Information provided by a sole informant should be considered cautiously when assessing young people with ASD and a multi-informant assessment approach is preferable. There is also a clear need for empirically validated interventions to assist adolescents with behaviour and emotional difficulties. Interventions that seek to improve the social skills, competence and outcomes of young people with ASD may also reduce their vulnerability to and experience of additional behaviour and emotional difficulties.

BackgroundType 2 Diabetes Mellitus (T2DM) has been associated with lower levels of cognitive function in older adults. However, evidence on the potential role of T2DM management in age‐related cognitive function is limited. To explore the prospective association of T2DM and its management with cognitive function among middle‐aged and older Chinese adults.MethodThis study included 7,230 participants without baseline brain damage, mental retardation, or memory‐related diseases from the China Health and Retirement Longitudinal Study (CHARLS) in 2011‐2012. Fasting plasma glucose and self‐reported information on T2DM diagnosis and treatment was assessed at baseline. Participants were then categorized into normoglycemia, impaired fasting glucose (IFG), and T2DM (including untreated T2DM and treated T2DM) groups. Cognitive function, including episodic memory and executive function, was assessed by the modified Telephone Interview for Cognitive Status (TICS) every two years until 2015. We used the generalized estimating equation (GEE) model to examine the association of baseline T2DM status and cognitive function in succeeding years.ResultCompared to those with normoglycemia, participants with T2DM tended to have lower level of overall cognitive function (β = ‐0.23, 95% CI: ‐0.43, ‐0.02) after controlling for demographic variables, lifestyles, follow‐up time, and major clinical factors. In particular, the strong association was mainly observed for those with untreated T2DM (β = ‐0.31, 95% CI: ‐0.54, ‐0.07), especially in the domain of executive function (β = ‐0.22, 95% CI: ‐0.39, ‐0.06) and among those ≥60 years (β = ‐0.58, 95% CI: ‐0.91, ‐0.23). In general, individuals with IFG and treated T2DM had similar levels of cognitive function with normoglycemia participants.ConclusionOur findings supported the detrimental role of T2DM especially untreated T2DM in cognitive function among middle‐aged and older adults. Screening and early treatment for T2DM are warranted for maintaining better cognitive function in later life.

Purpose: The purpose of this study was to investigate physical activity of elderly women at senior citizen centers and to identify factors influencing physical activity. Methods: The study was conducted from February 22 to April 20, 2013 for 200 elderly women at senior citizen centers in J City. Levels of physical activity, cognitive function, and nutritional status were measured. Results: The total physical activity amount was <TEX>$2118.94{\pm}2.36$</TEX> MET-min. The average cognitive function score was <TEX>$21.17{\pm}4.63$</TEX>, and the average nutritional status score was <TEX>$24.04{\pm}3.37$</TEX>. There were significant relationships among physical activity, cognitive function, and nutritional status. In addition, there were significant differences of groups of physical activity by levels of cognitive function and nutritional status. Cognitive function, nutritional status, and age were significantly associated with level of physical activity in elderly women. Conclusion: The results showed many older women were doing moderate physical activity. Physical activity was associated with cognitive function and nutritive conditions. Integrated health promotion program needs to be implemented to increase physical activity level, the cognitive function, and nutritive conditions in elderly women.

This study examined the trajectories of depression and cognitive function in the transition to widowhood and investigated the temporal and causal relationship between these two closely related constructs. Respondents were 1,822 widowed adults aged 51 to 91 from a restructured data set (Wave 3 to Wave 12) of the Health and Retirement Study. The results of cross-lagged panel analysis indicated a bidirectional relationship between depressive symptoms and cognition decline, but the effects of cognitive impairment at earlier time points on later depression were larger than the effects of previous depressive symptoms on later cognition. The latent growth curve analysis showed that the cognitive function declined over time, whereas the initial level of depressive symptoms first increased following widowhood and gradually decreased over time. Significant negative associations were found between the initial levels of depression and cognitive function (p < .001) and between the rates of change of these two variables (p = .025). Older adults tended to have lower initial level of cognitive function and they showed faster cognitive decline over time. Female respondents were more likely to report more depressive symptoms and higher cognitive function. White respondents were more likely to report fewer depressive symptoms and higher levels of cognitive function. Higher levels of education were protective for one’s cognitive function but not for depressive symptoms. The study highlighted the reciprocal relationship between depression and cognitive function following widowhood and pointed out that accelerated cognitive decline may precede elevated levels of depression.

To investigate the associations of physical-activity trajectories with the level of cognitive performance and its decline in adults 50 years of age or older. We studied 38729 individuals (63 ± 9 years; 57% women) enrolled in the Survey of Health, Ageing and Retirement in Europe (SHARE). Physical activity was self-reported and cognitive performance was assessed based on immediate recall, verbal fluency, and delayed recall. Physical-activity trajectories were estimated using growth mixture modelling and linear mixed effects models were used to investigate the associations between the trajectories and cognitive performance. The models identified two physical-activity trajectories of physical activity: constantly-high physical activity (N=27634: 71%) and decreasing physical activity (N=11095; 29%). Results showed that participants in the decreasing physical-activity group exhibited a lower level of cognitive performance compared to the high physical-activity group (immediate recall: ß=0.94; 95% confidence interval [CI]=0.92 to 0.95; verbal fluency: ß=0.98; 95% CI=0.97 to 0.98; delayed recall: ß=0.95; 95% CI=0.94 to 0.97). Moreover, compared with participants in the constantly-high physical-activity group, participants in the decreasing physical-activity group showed a steeper decline in all cognitive measures (immediate recall: ß=-0.04; 95% CI=-0.05 to -0.04; verbal fluency: ß=-0.22; 95% CI=-0.24 to -0.21; delayed recall: ß=-0.04; 95% CI=-0.05 to -0.04). Physical-activity trajectories are associated with the level and evolution of cognitive performance in adults over 50 years. Specifically, our findings suggest that a decline in physical activity over multiple years is associated with a lower level and a steeper decline in cognitive performance.

mental working capacity and cognitive functions in advanced age are the leading indicators of the active functioning of the state of the psyche, which reflects its main properties: attention, perception, thinking, memory. With the help of physical activity, mental activity and cognitive functions prolong vitality in the period of late ontogenesis. the objective of our research was to substantiate the mental working capacity and the level of cognitive functions in the context of a healthy lifestyle of the elderly. to achieve the objectives set in the research, a complex of interconnected and complementary methods was used, which were applied at the theoretical and empirical levels: theoretical (analysis and synthesis, generalization), pedagogical, sociological, psychodiagnostic and mathematical statistics. 187 men aged 60-65 participated in the study. the average passport age was 63.2 years. Research findings. the paper defines the concept of a healthy lifestyle in advanced age, determines the level of mental working capacity and cognitive functions of elderly men as important health components of the people of the third age. Conclusions. During the study of mental working capacity and cognitive functions of the elderly as a concept of a healthy lifestyle, it was determined that the need for activity is quite high. the indicators of cognitive functions were found to be within the norm of most of the respondents. 11.2 % of the participants were diagnosed with cognitive impairment and 2.6 % were diagnosed with mild dementia. It was pointed out that among persons aged 60-65, among indicators of mental working capacity, 10.7 % of men corresponded to a high level. We believe, therefore, that in modern conditions, the issue of organizing spare time of the elderly requires special attention. the complexity of solving this problem lies in the lack of norms and rules for the regulation of the leisure sphere, the lack of specialists in the leisure sphere who would possess new technologies of its organization.

Introduction. The cognitive functions usable in the sports performance are for example an ability to anticipate, perception and speed of movement reactions, decision-making ability or attention. These abilities or functions apply differently to different sports. It means that open skill sports such as team sports, require the coordination of complex bodily movements and adaptation to continually changing task demands.The aim of this study is to identify differences in the level of female's cognitive functions regarding the chosenopen skill sportsand closed skill sport disciplines. Material and Methods. The research group consisted of 84 women aged 22.70±1.71 years. Women were divided into three groups in terms of sport discipline into: female engaged in closed skill sport disciplines (n=26), in open skill sport disciplines (n=19) and not engaged in any sport activity (n=39). We used standardized S-test to determine the level of cognitive functions. It is a test of spatial orientation and concentration of attention with accentuated demands on the pace of activity. Results. The results have shown that female engaged in open skill sport disciplines have shown higher level of cognitive functions than female engaged in closed skill sport disciplines (p=0.04) and also as nonathletes (p=0.02). There was no difference in cognitive function between female engaged in closed skill sport disciplines and nonathletes. Conclusions. Our results confirm the theory of different involvement of cognitive functions from the point of view of different types of sport disciplines.

Variation in cognitive functioning in nonorganic psychiatric disorders

The objectives of this report are to determine the association between performance-based measures of physical function with caregiver reports of physical function in older adults with Alzheimer disease (AD) and to examine whether those associations vary by the level of patients' cognitive functioning. Subjects included 180 patient-caregiver dyads who are enrolled in a clinical trial testing the impact of an occupational therapy intervention plus guideline-level care to delay functional decline among older adults with AD. The primary caregiver-reported measure is the Alzheimer's Disease Cooperative Study Group Activities of Daily Living Inventory (ADCS-ADL). Performance-based measures include the Short Physical Performance Battery and the Short Portable Sarcopenia Measure. Analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) models were used to determine the associations of each physical performance measure with ADCS-ADL, adjusting for cognition function and other covariates. We found significant correlations between caregiver reports and observed performance-based measures across all levels of cognitive function, with patients in the lowest cognitive group showing the highest correlation. These findings support the use of proxy reports to assess physical function among older adults with AD.

Background Cognitive dysfunction after total knee arthroplasty (TKA) is very common in elderly patients. Postoperative cognitive dysfunction (POCD), as a form of cognitive dysfunction, may affect patients' short- and long-term recoveries. The identification of meaningful risk factors may help reduce the occurrence of POCD in the future. Objective Our goal was to retrospectively investigate the risk factors for early POCD in elderly patients undergoing TKA and to further analyze the relationship between the intensity of risk factors and the level of cognitive function. Methods The related indicators and the Montreal Cognitive Function Assessment Scale (MOCA) scores of 105 elderly patients were collected by searching the electronic case system. According to the postoperative MOCA score, patients were divided into three groups: normal group (group N), mild POCD group (group M), and severe POCD group (group S). SPSS 25.0 software was used for statistical analyses. Results At baseline, the preoperative MOCA score was significantly different in patients with POCD (P ≤ 0.001), while other baseline indicators were not significantly different. In terms of changes in hemoglobin levels, statistically significant differences were observed between group M, group S, and group N (P = 0.039). Among inflammatory indicators, only postoperative CRP levels showed a statistically significant difference in patients with POCD (P = 0.041). Postoperative pain was also significantly different among the three groups (P = 0.009). The multivariate regression analysis revealed that a low preoperative MOCA score and severe postoperative pain were independent risk factors for mild and severe cognitive impairment, while a high postoperative CRP level was only an independent risk factor for mild cognitive impairment. Conclusions Our study found that the level of preoperative cognitive function, postoperative CRP level, and postoperative pain were independent risk factors for POCD. Moreover, the levels of preoperative cognitive function and postoperative pain were more strongly correlated with severe POCD than postoperative CRP levels.

Objective:To study the correlation among the serum monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1),serum amyloid A(SAA) and the level of cognitive function in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and obstructive sleep apnea hypopnea syndrome overlap syndrome(OS).Method:Sixty patients with OS were in the experimental group, and 33 patients with COPD were in control group. The serum levels of MCP-1 and SAA were measured, and the correlation among MCP-1, SAA and cognitive function was observed by the Montreal scale.Result:①The serum levels of MCP-1 and SAA in OS group were (159.85±21.38)ng/L and (122.64±42.49)ng/L respectively,which in control group were (135.02±15.31)ng/L and (71.37±10.16)ng/L respectively.There were the was statistically significant difference between the two groups(P<0.05). ②Montreal scale score and its sub items in OS group were lower than the control group.The difference was statistically significant (P<0.05).③There was significant negative correlation between Montreal scale and the serum levels of MCP-1(r=-0.654,P<0.05) and SAA (r=-0.617,P<0.05) in OS group.Conclusion:Patients in the OS group had obvious cognitive impairment compared with the ones in control group, which suggested that OSAHS might be an independent risk factor for cognitive impairment. The cognitive function of OS patients was negatively related to MCP-1 and SAA, which suggested that MCP-1 and SAA played a role in the occurrence of cognitive impairment in OS patients.