The Spice Ports: Mapping the Origins of Global Sea Trade

"This volume is a major historical contribution to the enduring debate about whether trade makes peace more likely. In nine detailed historical case studies - spread over 500 years and spanning the globe - the contributors explore the dynamic between trade and conflict and examine the consequences of their intersection, direct and indirect, immediate and long term, anticipated and unexpected, transformative and destructive. The contributors break new ground by collectively showing that trade and conflict have been reciprocally constitutive: trade sparks conflict and conflict in turn provokes the adaptation of trade. Scholars who affirm a close association between trade and peace will have to take into account the close and persistent connection between trade and conflict, as will the makers of current trade policy"--

This chapter explores the maritime dynamics of the Indian Ocean in the seventeenth century and the resulting impact on the process of globalisation. It analyses the global economic relations of Mughal South Asia and explores the concepts of pro-globalisation, de-globalisation, and the impact of maritime expansionism on regional and global trade. It determines that the oft-presumed link between expansionism and pro-globalisation is erroneous and that maritime expansionism was neither a de-globalising nor pro-globalising. The author calls on maritime historians to devote further research into this ambiguity.

From the earliest centuries, there is evidence of the participation of various communities in the Southeast Asian region in global trade between Europe, India and China. One of its components was between China and Maritime Southeast Asia, which focused on trade in the South China Sea and the Straits of Melaka. Maritime Southeast Asia developed, first as suppliers of regional goods and services, next as the transit foci of routes extending to the Indian Ocean and the Mediterranean. The region also attracted new migrant communities as sojourners, settlers and colonists vying for the control of the flow of goods and services, giving rise to an intricate pattern of complex local, regional and global trade networks. As new types of products, routes and markets emerged in dynamic and ever-changing patterns, some of the communities were wiped away, while others re-grouped to form new social and economic alliances. New political, social and economic liaisons and mobility resulted in the formation of acculturated minority communities. This paper is part of a broader study of the contribution of one such minority sub-community, i.e., the Peranakan Chinese in maritime Southeast Asia in the period when the China-Southeast Asia component of the East-West trade had its most significant impact on the social and economic development of the region, i.e., the eighteenth to the nineteenth centuries. Keywords: trading communities, regional commerce, maritime Southeast Asia, Peranakan Chinese

International trade is influenced by many factors: the development and deepening of the labor international division and the production internationalization; trade growth and economic integration with the common markets formation, free trade zones; international trade liberalization, reduction of the level of protectionism and trade barriers. The very first form of international trade was sea trade, since one of the oldest modes of transport is sea transport, which still retains its primacy in cargo transportation. Sea trade is a form of international economic relations, international trade in goods, the delivery of which is carried out using sea transport.The article examines the current state and trends in the maritime trade deve-lopment, identifies the main problems of the maritime industry and the risks that threaten the development of maritime trade in a pandemic, analyzes the prospects for the deve-lopment of trade with the participation of maritime transport in the world and in Ukraine.Trade tensions have triggered a restructuring of global maritime trade, as the search for alternative markets and suppliers has redirected flows from China to other markets, especially in Southeast Asia. UNCTAD experts note that the impact of COVID-19 on trade was most severe in the first half of 2020, when trade volumes fell by 15 %. But many countries never recovered by the end of the year. On the other hand, some states were able to successfully withstand new challenges and achieved an increase in their share in the world market, displacing from it the least competitive suppliers, which suffered as a result of reduced demand. The analysis showed that the structure of Ukraine's maritime trade was quite resistant to the emergence of coronavirus. And the significant share of agricultural products in production and exports is a confirmation of this fact. For the development of Ukraine's maritime trade and integration into the world economic system, it is necessary to develop and implement the capabilities of the national maritime economic complex, to protect the interests of Ukraine as a maritime power in the foreign policy and foreign economic spheres.Keywords: maritime trade, COVID-19 pandemic, export, import, maritime policy.

In the era of rapidly changing state policies and power politics sea trade is gaining valuable attention. In this connection Pakistan's Gawadar seaport and Iranian Chabahar seaport have gained geopolitical and geostrategic significance. Both economic seaports are found at the Strait of Hormuz area which keeps 2/3 of the global oil assets and where approximately seventeen billion dollars drums of raw oil goes every day. Apparently, once these seaports are completely functional, they will be opponents for control of the local seaborne business. The financial and geostrategic significance of these harbors is deliberately clear from the fact that these sea economic trade hubs are found at the combination junction of worldwide sea delivery and oil business tracks while linking three regions: South Asia, Middle East and Central Asia. Furthermore, both are geostrategic ally and financially important chokepoints which given endless entrance to the Indian Sea where about one lakh ships navigate in a year and seventy percent of the global oil sea trade goes. It is also home to sixty percent of the global raw material. The paper presents that how Chabahar and Gwadar port would provide an outlet for the landlocked central Asian countries to access to warm water and to reduce the dependency over the Russia for its trade route. Moreover, it highlights the rivalry between Gwadar and Chabahar port and the strategic situation in the region and it concludes with how Gwadar trumps the Chabahar port?

Corona Virus Disease 2019 (Covid-19) is a large family of viruses that can cause a wide range of illnesses, from the common cold to catastrophic conditions such as MERS and SARS. From the beginning of its spread, all aspects of human life have been affected by the pandemic that has spread around the world, including the global economic downturn and decreased manufacturing capacity. In addition, this circumstance has a new impact on the dimensions of global sea trade. This study uses a descriptive qualitative research method. Through a descriptive qualitative approach, analyzing and obtaining conclusions is done by looking for theories from various sources of literature such as books, journals, articles or other media. The conclusions obtained from this study are Covid-19 has affected all forms of human activity, including trading activities by sea. The application of physical distancing on board merchant ships is one way to prevent the spread of Covid-19 during the voyage. After the Covid-19 pandemic, the trend of larger ship sizes and fewer ship companies has continued. The Covid-19 outbreak not only created a health emergency, but also shook the global economic sector. This has caused a sudden and dramatic reduction in global sea trade traffic and energy consumption.

Topicality. The expediency of developing scientific regulations is related to the need to take into account the new operating conditions of maritime enterprises of Ukraine and their adaptation. It is also important to analyze and justify the parametric features of the positioning of maritime transport enterprises. First of all, it is necessary to take into account: factors of the development of the global maritime trade market, trends and prospects of the global maritime industry, the state and competitive positioning of the port business, the functioning and prospects of the development of logistic - multimodal transport systems.Aim and tasks. Systematization of factors and substantiation of the peculiarities of the positioning of marine and river infrastructure enterprises of Ukraine, clarification of new conditions for the development of transport enterprises in the structure of the regional transport market. Achieving the set goal of the research is conditioned by the need to solve the following tasks: analysis and substantiation of parametric features of the development of the global maritime trade market, conditions for the development of the global maritime merchant fleet, analysis of the environment of international investments and the investment attractiveness of the maritime industry of Ukraine, trends and peculiarities of the positioning of the development of private and state property in the structure of the national stevedore market, substantiating the strategic importance of the marine and river infrastructure of Ukraine in ensuring the economic security of the country and overcoming the food crisis in the world.Materials and methods. The scientific basis of the research was methods of analysis and synthesis, methods of mathematical statistics, methods of grouping, methods of making rational decisions, methods of operations research, as well as official data of statistical information, data of the United Nations Trade and Development Conference, the Ministry of Infrastructure of Ukraine, analytical materials of state statistics of Ukraine, analytical data of the administration of seaports of Ukraine.Research results. The trends and prospects for the development of world maritime trade are considered. The dynamics of the shipping capacity of the world merchant fleet for 2018-2021 is presented. The assessment of the state of the maritime trade market is given. Flows of foreign direct investments were analyzed and factors affecting their dynamics were identified. The state of the port infrastructure of Ukraine is substantiated. The dynamics of the cargo turnover of sea trade ports of the Black Sea region for 2005-2021 are given. The state and functioning of the private and public sectors of port business in Ukraine are analyzed. The dynamics of cargo turnover of private and state stevedoring enterprises in Ukraine for 2013-2021 is presented. The importance of the role of state ownership in the stevedore business in Ukraine, taking into account the state of war, is emphasized. The importance of the functioning of the port and river infrastructure of Ukraine in ensuring food security in the world is emphasized. The work of port operators under the "Grain Agreement" was analyzed.Conclusion. Factors of effective functioning of transport enterprises are systematized. The information and logistics model is presented, which takes into account the conditions of adaptation of enterprises of the maritime and river industry to Ukraine, taking into account the state of war. The economic requirements of the positioning of the components of the transport infrastructure of Ukraine are taken into account, taking into account the negative impact of the external environment. The impact of the use of the principle of digitalization, "single window" on the efficiency of the positioning of logistics links of cargo delivery is emphasized. The need to expand the water area of the ports on the Danube River and develop the logistics of the ports of the Danube region to ensure the functional stability of the potential of the transport industry of Ukraine has been revealed.

_ Maritime transport accounts for around 3% of global anthropogenic greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions (Well-to-Wake). These GHG emissions must be reduced by at least 50% in absolute values by 2050 to contribute to the ambitions of the Paris Agreement signed in 2015. Switching to zero-carbon fuels made from renewable sources (hydro, wind, or solar) is seen by many as the most promising option to deliver the desired GHG reductions. However, renewable energy is a scarce resource that gives a much larger GHG reduction spent within other sectors. This study explores how to reach the IMO 2050 GHG targets exclusively through energy efficiency measures. The results indicate that by combining wind-assisted ship propulsion (WASP) with a slender hull form, fuel consumption and GHG emissions can be reduced by 30–35%, at a negative abatement cost for speeds exceeding 8 knots. Where the cost saving increases with the speed because at higher speeds, the fuel accounts for a higher share of the total cost, which implies that the cost saving goes from zero at 8 knots, to 5% reduction at 11 knots average speed to 14% reduction of total cost with 15 knots average speed. In comparison, GHG reductions through zero-carbon fuels will increase transport costs by 50–200%. Introduction From the first days of our civilization, sea transport has enabled regional and global trades. Today, sea transport accounts for 80% of the global trade measured in ton-miles (UNCTAD 2021) and 3% of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions measured Well-to-Wake (Lindstad et al. 2021). More than 40% of this sea trade is performed by dry bulkers, making them the real workhorses of the sea. Even though sea transport is energy efficient compared to other transport modes, all sectors need to reduce their GHG emissions by at least 50% in absolute values by 2050 to contribute to the Paris Agreement (UNFCCC 2015). According to Bouman et al. (2017), the desired energy and GHG reductions can be achieved through: Design and other technical improvements of ships; Operational improvements; Fuels with zero or low GHG footprints; or a combination of these.

Semarang Old City is located in Semarang City, Central Java, Indonesia. This article contains the discussion on the history of Semarang Old City as the center of global trade activities. This Old City was founded at the end of 17th century after an agreement was approved by the Mataram Kingdom and the Vereeniging van Oost-Indische Compagnië (VOC/The Dutch East Indie Company) in 1678, that led VOC to take control over the north coastal region of Java from the Prince of the Mataram Kingdom, Amangkurat II. Based on this agreement, VOC was given the right to choose the areas near the center of Semarang Regency and Semarang River as its residence in order to easily control the Javanese administration and the Java Sea trading activities. Later on, the colony of the VOC developed into a little city surrounded by a fortress in which the VOC leaders, its officers, and soldiers resided, and some city’s facilities were built such as municipality house (stadshuis), trading offices, shops, roads, soldier barracks, warehouses, schools, hospital, church, court, prison, and residential areas. In the Dutch Colonial era (18th – 20th centuries), this old city become the center of international trade activities in Central Java strengthened by the presence of Semarangs Handels Vereeniging (Association of Traders in Semarang) and Nederlandsche Handels Maatshappij (Dutch Trade Company), which managed the import-export trade.

The research paper showed that the major causes of boat and ferry accidents in Nigeria include human factor errors, natural factors, and technical factors. The safety of life and navigation at sea are important to coastal, flag states and the entire international shipping community in sustaining the growth of global sea trade. National governments and indeed the Federal government of Nigeria have committed substantial resources and efforts on programmes aimed at reducing the incidence of accident involving marine vessels at sea. The primary causes of boat and ferry accident considered in this paper include human, natural, and technical factors. Human factor constitutes the core causes of boat and ferry accidents in Nigeria inland waterways, as reflected in the calculated value of X2 = (0.368), a value within the acceptance region as it is less than the theoretical value of X2 = (7.815). The human factors include the following: overloading, over speeding, collision, night sailing without adequate light, grounding, overcrowding etc. Natural factors investigated are: sea condition (current), tides and tidal stream, severe wind, reduced visibility, stormy seas, darkness, rainstorms and waves. Technical factors include shortcomings within the ship, such as, steering failure, engine failure, corrosion or hull failure arising from defective materials or construction. These findings have implication on regulation and enforcement by relevant authorities. In view of the findings and conclusion drawn in this study, it was suggested that Government should support these agencies such as NIWA, Marine Police, NIMASA, and the Nigeria Navy if possible with equipment’s, logistics in policing the waterway

The Spice Ports: Mapping the Origins of Global Sea Trade

The history of the global economy is the history of global international trade; whoever could command the oceans could control the wealth of that Era, e.g., Phoenicians and Arabs commanded the world before Europe’s colonial expeditions through seas. When the Cold War Bipolar Era ended, the USA has been enjoying the benefits of globalization through military presence and hegemony across oceans in the unipolar Era. The Indian Ocean is said to contain most of the significant sea trade routes of the world, and the Bay of Bengal in the Northeast does the same more precisely while interfacing with the South China sea. Regional peace and stability is a precondition for the sustainability of international maritime trade and other blue economic functions. Here, this research is to propose region specific COMR (comprehensive ocean management regime) model to achieve blue economic objectives sustainably for the BOB (Bay of Bengal) maritime-littoral region. This research examined coastal and ocean initiatives like Maritime Protected Areas and Integrated Coastal Zone Management for their challenges at policy, management and operation levels leading towards a conceivable solution, choosing to make a few insinuations to the nations and areas of the world. Sectoral data that has been aggregated might be confusing, and quantitative data lacks validity and precision. In an outcome, in the deficiency of quantitative data, the presentation is created qualitatively. Moreover, the study also uses the Delphi method to address the research objectives of this study because, to establish a consensus, the Delphi technique includes obtaining expert opinion through a series of progressive and iterative investigations.

The history of the global economy is closely tied to the control of international trade routes, with maritime dominance playing a central role—evident in the supremacy of the Phoenicians, Arabs, and later European colonial powers. In the post-Cold War unipolar era, the USA has leveraged globalization through its maritime military hegemony. The Indian Ocean, particularly the Bay of Bengal (BoB), represents a critical hub for global sea trade and economic connectivity, intersecting with the South China Sea. Ensuring regional peace and stability is essential for sustaining international maritime trade and blue economic growth. This research introduces a novel Comprehensive Ocean Management Regime (COMR) tailored to the BOB maritime-littoral region to address these challenges and advance sustainable blue economic objectives. By critically analysing global coastal and ocean governance practices—such as Maritime Protected Areas and Integrated Coastal Zone Management—the study identifies policy, management, and operational challenges and proposes actionable solutions. Recognizing the limitations of aggregated sectoral data and the scarcity of precise quantitative insights, the study adopts a qualitative approach and employs the Delphi method to gather expert consensus through iterative analysis. The COMR framework provides a unique, actionable model that can guide sustainable maritime policy and management in the BOB region, contributing to the broader discourse on sustainable ocean governance.

International law, it might be argued, is a legal system directed toward the defeat or suppression of a category of violators known as “enemies of mankind,” or hosti humanis generis. Sometimes these are war criminals, sometimes they are terrorists or slave traders. The original enemy of mankind was the “pirate.” Piracy gave rise to a highly specialized form of international jurisdiction known as universal jurisdiction. Because pirates were a threat to the global order (particularly global sea trade), or because they committed particularly heinous acts, or because their acts were committed in a place beyond the territorial jurisdiction or sovereignty of any state (different reasons have been adduced at different times), they were subject to the jurisdiction of any state that happened to identify them, engage with them, and capture them. Thus, a pirate could be prosecuted in every state’s courts. The contemporary law of piracy, embodied in the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, has defined piracy as an act of violence or depredation committed on the high seas by a private actor acting for private ends. This distinguishes piracy from naval warfare or recognized belligerency on the high seas, but it has complicated efforts to apply the law of piracy to terrorists (who, after all, act for political ends, and most commonly in the territory of sovereign states) and it has meant that acts of piracy committed in the territorial waters of states are not subject to the international law of piracy (and the expansive forms of jurisdiction that accompany it). Therefore, attempts to assimilate terrorism to piracy have fallen foul of the technical rules governing traditional piracy. Likewise, these same rules frustrated initial efforts to confront the growing problem of traditional piracy carried out in places other than the high seas. The “international terrorist” and the Somali pirate, then, pose different problems for international law. In the case of terrorists, states have adopted ad hoc and controversial methods comparable to those used against pirates on the high seas. In the case of Somalia, the UN Security Council has authorized an international naval response to pirate attacks that permits foreign naval vessels to use force against pirates within Somali territorial waters.

This article examines the relationships between Pakistan and the countries of Central Asia. It is emphasized that since independence, the Central Asian states have acquired the attention of regional and global powers. Geographically, this region is landlocked but very rich in natural resources. At the same time, it is noted that due to the lack of energy resources, Islamabad needs to develop cooperation with the countries of Central Asia. From geostrategic point of view, Pakistan provides these regional states the shortest route to global sea trade. Special attention is paid to energy and transport-logical cooperation between Pakistan and Central Asian countries.