The socio-hydrological dynamics of Zimbabwe’s Tugwi-Mukosi community before and after displacement

This paper provides a highlight of the existing local community adaptation strategies that fishing communities in Rufiji Basin, in Tanzania, are employing to counteract the negative impacts of climate change and climate variability. Data were collected through key informants interviews, focus group discussions and in-depth interviews using a structured questionnaire that was administered to 120 household heads from two fishing communities (marine and freshwater resources communities). Findings indicate that, communities have acknowledge existence of a significant change in rainfall patterns, wind direction and duration, temperature and variation in seasons. These have resulted into disappearance of some fish species and fish production in terms of lowering catches. Following the low catch and disappearance of some species, the fishing communities have developed some adaptation strategies including shifting to crop cultivation, fishing during both day and night, sailing long distances for fishing and zoning the fishing areas. From the findings obtained, a framework that integrates local communities’ effective copying strategies that has been indicated to work better in the area and interventions geared to influence policy and institutions that are dealing either directly or indirectly with the impact of climate change and climate variability is recommended to aid decision making that will ensure the impacts of climate change and climate variability is reduced for the good of the fishing communities. Key words: Adaptation strategies, freshwater resources, marine resources

Limited epidemiological data related to injury and high-intensity functional training (HIFT) suggest relatively low injury risk compared to other exercises (e.g., running). PURPOSE: This qualitative study characterized injury related experiences for HIFT participants. METHODS: 60-min key informant interviews (KI) with six HIFT coaches (67% male, age = 39 ± 8y, 4 ± 3y experience), six 90-min focus groups (FG) with 48 HIFT exercisers (56% male, age = 34 ± 9y, 40% > 1y experience), and 15-min interviews (IN) with 10 HIFT exercisers (50% male, age = 43 ± 15y, 50% > 1y experience) were used. Only FG were asked “What injuries have you experienced as a result of participating in HIFT?” Data were audio recorded and transcribed verbatim. Member checking was used for interviews. Data were thematically analyzed to identify statements related to injuries, hurt, pain, soreness, or safety for all participants. Data were open-coded and discussed for consensus by two researchers. RESULTS: Key themes included participants reporting mostly minor “HIFT injuries” (KI = 33%, FG = 100%, IN = 20%). Participants also reported having “injuries from other types of exercises/sports” (KI = 33%, FG = 67%, IN = 10%) “High intensity workouts” influenced when participants pushed too hard and became injured or lessened intensity to avoid injury (KI = 50%, FG = 67%, IN = 20%). Accordingly, participants reported feeling pain and soreness “during workouts” (KI = 33%, FG = 83%, IN = 20%), although some liked this. Some “started HIFT because of injury” (KI = 33%, FG = 67%, IN = 10%) and utilized HIFT for “therapy/prevention of other health problems” (KI = 17%, FG = 50%, IN = 67%) while others “stopped HIFT due to injury” (KI = 33%, FG = 50%). Even though “perceived injury risk” was a participation barrier (FG = 67%, IN = 10%), “scaling or modifying” workouts helped avoid injuries or continue HIFT when injured (KI = 50%, FG = 17%, IN = 10%). “Good coaching” (KI = 50%, FG = 50%), “improved fitness” (KI = 17%, FG = 33%, IN = 30%), and “knowledge, technique, and goals” (KI = 33%, FG = 83%, IN = 10%) were injury prevention tools. CONCLUSIONS: Data illuminate the range of participants’ experiences with HIFT regarding injury, including how to modify workouts, prevent/recover from injuries, and improve health. Prospective studies should be designed to prevent and/or better track HIFT injuries.

The study was undertaken in Kongelai Ward, West Pokot County, because of its vulnerability to changing and erratic rainfall pattern which has adversely affected pastoralism. The research focused on better understanding of climate change and variability on two climatic factors, rainfall and temperature, in order to provide insights on pastoralists’ risk management adaptations at a micro-level. In addition, it investigated the use of Indigenous Knowledge. Pearson chi square test was performed to test the hypothesis on whether there is an association between climate variability and change, and coping and adaptation strategies utilized by the Pokot community. Both primary and secondary data was used. Household questionnaire survey, focus group discussion and key informants interviews were used to collect primary data at household and community levels. Primary data (through questionnaires) was collected from a sample survey of 98 households taken from 5,596 households. multi-stage sampling technique was used, and information obtained was analyzed using inferential and descriptive statistics. Results indicated that, 94% of the farmers use Indigenous knowledge. Coping strategies include: Selling livestock (90%), relief food supply (90%), cash/food-for-work (71%), Slaughter of old and weak livestock (58%), consumption of wild fruits (33%), consumption of bush products, (50%), off-farm employment (30%), and minimization of food for consumption (84%). Diversification of livelihood (92%), Livestock mobility (94%), sending children to school (56%), Strategic livestock feed (35%), Develop water sources (15%),Change in diet consumption (78%),Livestock off-take (25%),Storage of pasture (35%), were identified as some of the most commonly used adaptation strategies. Recommendations include; better planning and target interventions, Awareness creation on environment, alternative income source, support pastoralists adaptation and coping strategies, enhancement of extension services, documentation and dissemination of indigenous knowledge, and enhance pastoralists’ resilience to drought and heat stressesÂ

Climate variability coupled with land use and land cover changes have resulted in significant changes in forest reserves in Ghana with major implications for rural livelihoods. Understanding the link between climate variability, land use and land cover changes and rural livelihoods is key for decision-making, especially regarding sustainable management of forest resources, monitoring of ecosystems and related livelihoods. The study determined the extent to which climate variability drives land cover changes in the Bobiri forest reserve, Ghana. Landsat images from 1986, 2003, 2010 and 2014 were used to evaluate land cover changes of the Bobiri forest reserve in Ghana. Participatory research approaches including household questionnaire surveys, focus group discussions and key informant interviews were conducted in four fringe communities of the Bobiri forest reserve. Findings showed that local people perceived changes in rainfall and temperature patterns over the past years. Historical rainfall and temperature data for the study area showed increased variability in rainfall and an increasing temperature trend, which are consistent with the perception of the study respondents. Analysis of land cover satellite images showed that there has been significant transformation of closed forest to open forest and non-forest land cover types over the 28-year period (1986–2014), with an overall kappa statistic of 0.77. Between 2003 and 2014, closed forest decreased by 15.6% but settlement/bare ground and crop land increased marginally by 1.5% and 0.9%, respectively. Focus group discussions and key informant interviews revealed that increased land cover changes in the Bobiri forest reserve could partly be attributed to erratic rainfall patterns. Other factors such as logging and population growth were reported to be factors driving land cover changes. The study concluded that the Bobiri forest reserve has witnessed significant land cover changes and recommended that alternative livelihood sources should be provided to reduce the direct dependency of fringe communities on the forest for livelihood and firewood.

As the climate changes, conjunctive use and management of water resources, or integrated water resources management, has become critically important for water resource planners and managers. Climate variability has resulted in irregular precipitation and temperature patterns, and, in turn, extreme storm events causing floods and frequent droughts. Such extreme events have raised stakeholders’ concerns for water availability. Conjunctive uses of multiple water resources are best management practices/ strategies to address this change in water availability. To implement such strategies, an important aspect gaining a better understanding of the hydrological interconnections among atmospheric water, surface water, and groundwater (three waters) as well as their trends or patterns with climate variations. The Earth’s hydrologic cycle is defined as “the pathway of water as it moves in its various phase through the atmosphere, to the Earth, over and through the land, to the ocean, and back to the atmosphere” (National Research Council 1991). Water in this hydrologic cycle (Chow et al. 1988) may be divided into atmospheric water, surface water, and groundwater (subsurface water). Surface water and atmospheric water transfer to each other through water surface evaporation, evapotranspiration by aquatic plants, and precipitation; groundwater and atmospheric water transfer to each other through near-surface evaporation, evapotranspiration through plants, and deep percolation of precipitation. Surface water and groundwater transfer to each other through seepage when they are hydraulically connected or by infiltration when they are hydraulically disconnected. This three-water transfer has been recognized since the latter part of the seventeenth century (Todd and Mays 2005). The three-water interactions mainly occur on the water’s surface, the land’s surface, and in the vadose zone above the groundwater table, as well as in the hyporheic zone between surface water and groundwater. Along with this water transfer, bio-chemical, physical, and kinetic interactions occur between atmospheric water, surface water, and groundwater. The threewater interactions involve multiple disciplines such as meteorology, surface hydrology, subsurface hydrology, geology, agronomy, pedology, and bio-ecology, to name just a few. Significant advances in understanding three-water interactions have been made over the last several decades. For example, advances in interactions between groundwater and surface water have been overviewed (Winter 1995, 1999; Sophocleous 2002; Diiwu 2003) since the growth in research related to surface-subsurface exchange processes mushroomed during the 1990s (Stanley and Jones 2000). Winter (1995) reviewed advances in understanding the interaction of groundwater and surface water in different landscapes: mountain, riverine, coastal, hummocky, and karst terrains. Winter (1999) proposed three general theoretical considerations regarding the interaction of groundwater with surface water. This interaction is affected by (1) different-scale groundwater flow systems, (2) local soil and geologic controls on seepage distribution, and (3) the magnitude of transpiration directly from groundwater around a surface-water perimeter since this transpiration intercepts potential groundwater inflows or draws water from surface-water bodies. Sophocleous (2002) synthesized and exemplified the interactions between groundwater and surface water in relation to climate, landform, geology, and biotic factors. Diiwu (2003) reviewed fundamental concepts of the ecohydrology of the interaction between groundwater and surface water, and discussed the relevance of this interaction to the sustainable management of water resources in semi-arid regions. A task committee (see subsequent information) was established within the Groundwater Council to promote scientific exchange and share experiences by inviting scientists and researchers to prepare articles and presentations focusing on the state of science relative to the interaction of atmospheric water, surface water, and groundwater, and on the impacts of climate change on water resources, as well as their conjunctive management and uses. This special section includes a collection of invited and peer-reviewed papers including field investigations, numerical simulations, and practical case studies on the following topics: physical/hydrological characterization of interactions; analytical and numerical models for simulating interactions; conjunctive uses and management of the three waters; climate change impacts on interaction of the three waters, including extreme events such as floods and drought; and water quality issues related to such interactions. In this special section, authors present their recent research findings on the interactions of the three waters and their associated processes. It is anticipated that this collection will promote further scientific exchange and further advances of our knowledge in this research area. We are very appreciative of the authors’ contribution and efforts and of the constructive comments and timely reports by reviewers and editors.

Smallholder farmers constitute a significant proportion of the world’s population that is vulnerable to climate variability. This is because they derive their livelihoods from agriculture, which heavily relies on rainfall as a source of moisture for crops production. Therefore, smallholder farmers are exposed to changes in rainfall patterns, temperature variation and extreme events such as floods and drought that could lead into disasters. Hence adaptation strategies are fundamental to reduce the impacts of climate variability. However, in order to plan for adaptation, emphasis has been on formal knowledge systems that in most cases are not accessible to and affordable by most of the smallholder farmers. Generally, farmers have their local knowledge that they use to adapt to climate variability. This article uncovers the role of smallholder farmers’ local knowledge in adaptation to climate variability. The study was conducted in Ludewa district in Njombe region. Methods used in data collection were semi-structured interviews, key informant interviews and FGDs. A total of 355 respondents were randomly selected for structured interview. The collected data were analysed using IBM Statistical Product and Service Solution, and content analysis. To reduce vulnerability to climate variability smallholder farmers use local knowledge such as weather forecasts, valley bottom cultivation, diversification of crops, early preparation of farms, and use of drought tolerant crops and diversification of economic activities and soil moisture conservation methods such as mulching. The article concludes that neither local knowledge nor formal knowledge is sufficient by its own right for sustainable adaptation. Therefore, taking action to strengthen conditions for continued use of local knowledge is essential as well as investigating on the best way to integrate with formal adaptation knowledge

The present paper reports on a case study that investigated under what circumstances households use migration to cope with climate variability and food insecurity. Fieldwork was conducted in three communities in Dong Thap Province in the Upper Mekong Delta in Viet Nam. Methods used included a household survey (N=150), participatory research tools and key informant interviews. Ninety per cent of the survey respondents reported that climate-related stressors, such as floods, storms and changes in rainfall patterns, had adversely affected their livelihoods. Those effects, however, were more often qualified as being “moderate” rather than being “severe”, and for the survey population as a whole, no evidence was found that climatic stressors were principal drivers of migration from the area. The Upper Mekong Delta in Viet Nam is undergoing rapid economic development, with increasing migration mostly being driven by demand for labour in industrial centres. However, an analysis differentiated by income groups reveals that poorer households with little or no land are much more likely to be severely affected by climatic stressors than non-poor households. Their ability to cope and adapt locally is limited, and migration, which in most cases tends to be internal, is a common alternative. The present paper shows the importance of disaggregating climate impacts and migration causes for different socioeconomic groups.

Agriculture plays an important role in sustaining rural livelihoods. Eighty-three percent of rural people are engaged in agriculture (NIS and MAFF 2014). An emerging problem facing agriculture is climate change. The anticipated impacts of climate change and variability on agriculture include changes in rainfall patterns, higher temperatures, increased frequency and intensity of flood and drought, and increased incidence of pests and disease (MOE and UNDP 2011). These serious problems emphasise the critical need for climate-smart agriculture (CSA) (FAO 2013). Among CSA techniques, the system of rice intensification (SRI) is already being practised in Cambodia. SRI is a set of best practices that can increase rice yield on infertile soil to as much as 15 tonnes per ha, reduce the amount of irrigation water required, and use only local inputs (Willem 2002; Norman 2007; Kassam, Stoop and Uphoff 2011). This study identifies local knowledge and SRI practices in the Tonle Sap and Mekong delta agro-ecological zones. It looks at gaps in local practices and suggests ways of closing those gaps to enable farmers to cope with the effects of climate change. Primary data was collected from key informant interviews, focus group discussions and in-depth interviews with various institutions and individuals concerned. The selection of improved varieties is the most common SRI practice adopted to date. Marketdriven varieties are the most popular. Other SRI practices have been partly adopted and adapted to local conditions. Local people choose only the practices they think beneficial and feasible for them. The study also identifies various factors affecting this selection: socioeconomic, agronomic, physical, technological and institutional. Local communities need to mobilise local resources. Collective action is therefore required to share technical information, foster local innovation in dealing with weeds and adapting new practices, improve access to markets and inputs, identify local water storage options and share risks and labour. NGOs should collaborate more closely with departments involved with climate change adaptation and SRI to expand coverage of CSA. They should also focus more on local innovations and consider the complexity and technical requirements of each practice. NGOs and government extension agents should provide advice and services to help farmers connect to local and distant markets. Specialist departments and institutions also have to be engaged in research and development. The government should not only increase the number of village agents but also mobilise local people to work as local extension workers.

Agricultural policies in Kenya aim to improve farmers’ livelihoods. With projected climate change, these policies are short of mechanisms that promote farmers’ adaptation. As a result, smallholders are confronted with a variety of challenges including climate change, which hinders their agricultural production. Local knowledge can be instrumental in assisting smallholders to cope with climate change and variability. In this paper, we present empirical evidence that demonstrates local knowledge, perceptions and adaptations to climate change and variability amongst smallholders of Laikipia district of Kenya. A Palmer Drought Severity Index (PDSI) calculated for one station is compared with smallholders’ perceptions. Data was collected using qualitative and quantitative methods in Umande and Muhonia sub-locations. Qualitative data included 46 transcripts from focus group discussions and key informant interviews. Quantitative data is derived from 206 interviewees. We analyzed qualitative and quantitative data using Atlas-ti and SPSS respectively. According to smallholders’ perceptions, climatic variability is increasingly changing. Local perceptions include decreasing rainfalls, increasing temperatures, increasing frosts and increasing hunger. The PDSI shows a trend towards severe droughts in the last four decades, which is in accordance with farmers’ perceptions. Smallholders use a combination of coping and adaptation strategies to respond to variability, including, among others, diversification of crop varieties, migration and sale of livestock. Significant relationships exist between drought perceptions and some adaptations such as migration and sale of livestock. Farmers have an in-depth knowledge of climatic variability, which they use to inform their coping and adaptation strategies. Knowledge of climatic perceptions and adaptations are vital entry points for decision makers and policy makers to learn how and where to enhance the adaptive capacity of smallholders in rainy and drought periods.

Qualitative methods have much to contribute to public health research. Below are three public health projects that provide a sampling of empirical research for reflection on the varied use of...

Changes in rainfall patterns continue to affect pastoralism as practiced by the Maasai community in Kajiado County. The Maasai community is vulnerable to effects of the changing rainfall pat terns induced by climate variability. The community has tried to cope with these changes by altering livestock feeding practices but knowledge gaps exist as to whether these characteristic responses adequately respond to the problem posed by changing rainf all patterns. Thus, this study established how changes in rainfall patterns influence livestock feeding practices of the Maasai community in Kajiado County. A sample size of 136 household heads was used for the study. Results indicated that most of the res pondents had noticed changes in rainfall patterns ( 99%), 58.09 % reported that

Climate change and variability has direct and indirect effects on pastoralism through its effect on natural resources including water and pastures that support livestock production in pastoral areas. This study was conducted in Kajiado County where pastoralism is the main source of livelihood. The objective was to identify challenges facing pastoralism and adaptation measures applied by Maasai pastoralists to mitigate impacts of adverse climate events including flooding and drought. A cross-sectional study design was used and primary data collected through focus group discussions (FGDs), key informant interviews (KIIs) and expert opinion interviews (EOIs). A total of 10 FGDs (114 respondents within 10 wards, out of which 81 were men and 33 women), 25 KIIs (6 opinion leaders, 5 village elders, 6 chiefs, 6 government staff and 2 non-governmental organisation) and 12 EOIs (1 Department of Meteorological Services, 1 National Drought Management Authority (NDMA), 2 Department of Agriculture and 8 Departments of Veterinary Services and Livestock Production) were conducted during the data collection period. The findings showed that drought and flooding were the main climate related challenges that were often experienced by the pastoralists. The adaptation measure which were frequently implemented by pastoralist during flooding was livestock vaccination and mass treatment of sick livestock (Z >1.96) while the most frequently implemented adaptation measures during drought periods included migration with livestock to search for water and pasture (Z=1.51) and livestock vaccination and treatment of sick livestock (Z=1.08). Other climate variability related-challenges included increased incidences of livestock diseases, increased livestock deaths, increased cases of community conflicts, unavailability of veterinary vaccines and medicines, high cost of livestock vaccines and drugs and inadequate number of technical staff within the county. The study has shown that climate variability has significant impact on sources of livelihood for pastoralists who in turn are implementing several adaptation measures to mitigate the effects of climate change and variability. The study recommends formulation and implementation of appropriate plans and policies that are focussed on supporting resilience of the vulnerable pastoral communities and that could further assist in fighting the negative impacts of climate change and variability.

One aspect that poses a threat to the health and wellbeing of human race today is climate change. The impacts of climate change can never be over emphasized, climate change and health are fundamental elements that are surrounded by countless indicators. Climates change without doubt or fear of contradictions remain one of the determinants of health. The human body as a machine must be kept within a narrow physiological limit so also climate are indices that must be observed within an atmospherically friendly manner. This study on Evaluating the influence of climate change on food security and nutritional status among people in Monguno Local Government Area of Borno State, northeast Nigeria is a step to provide durable solutions to the ever-increasing negative influence of climate change on the continual survival of the people in Monguno local government area of Borno state northeast Nigeria. This study is explored to investigate the food security indicators of the people in Monguno local government, nutritional status of children under-five, climate change perceptions of the people in Monguno LGA and determination of regression analysis of predicting food insecurity respectively. The research was a mixed method research design. It was conducted in Monguno local government area of Borno state northeast Nigeria. The targeted population for the study is 125,000, emanating the population of people in Monguno LGA according to the United Nations office of humanitarian coordination (UNOCHA). A stratified random sampling method was used to determine the sample size. Sample size was obtained using Cochran’s formula of sample size determination. And a total of 384 samples was arrived at. By defining the strata, the population (125,000) was divided into 2 distinct groups based on the key features they possessed. The first group being the farmers/Fishermen and the second group being the vulnerable groups largely residing within internally displaced person camps which includes women, children and elderly persons. About 25,000 farmers and fishermen while 100,000 is for the vulnerable group. The sample size for each group was obtained as 77 for farmers/fishermen while 307 for vulnerable group respectively. Random sampling within each stratum was done by creating a list of individuals and household in each stratum or sampling frame. Simple random sampling was employed to select participants, numbers were assigned to the individuals in the sampling frame and excel was utilized to select participants. An adjustment for non-response was put into account by increasing the sample size proportionally for 10% non-response rate predicted. The adjusted sample size is 427 and divided proportionally to the 2 strata as 85 sample size to the farmers/fishermen and 342 to the vulnerable groups accordingly. This approach clears out that non-response rates have been put into account while maintaining proportional representation across the strata. For clear data analysis, food security, household hunger scale (HHS) food consumption score (FCS), and coping strategies index (CSI) will be calculated. These will aid in having baseline data to determine frequency of hunger, the diversity and frequency of food groups and strategies used to manage food shortages. a discussion of the anthropometric measurements emanating prevalence of malnutrition vis a vis stunting, wasting, underweight. This data will be presented in tables histograms respectively. Comparative analysis between farmers/fishermen and Vulnerable groups will be don’t thoroughly via T-test i.e. comparing food consumption scores between strata. Chi-Square Tests examine categorical variables such as food insecurity levels across groups. And comparatively, analyze subgroup i.e. women, children and elderly. Also, with regards to regression analysis, linear regression will be used to predict food security scores based on the factors like income, access to food and climate variabilities. Findings related to the household size. Based on this study Farmers/Fishermen have a higher mean age (39.2 ± 9.8 years) compared to the vulnerable groups (34.1 ± 10.6 years), with an overall mean age of 35.6 ± 10.3 years. Findings on the gender/sex distributions revealed that among farmers/fishermen, the majority are male (82%), with only 18% female. In comparison to the vulnerable groups are predominantly female (71%), with 29% male. On the household size findings, Farmers/Fishermen have smaller households on average (6.2 ± 2.1 members) compared to the vulnerable groups (7.5 ± 3.0 members), with an overall mean household size of 7.2 ± 2.8 members. The findings on household hunger scale, Farmers/Fishermen: 59% experience little to no hunger, Vulnerable Groups: Only 23% experience little to no hunger. The p-value < 0.01. A much higher 33% face severe hunger. The findings postulate FCS assess dietary diversity and frequency, categorizing households into poor, borderline, or acceptable consumption levels. The mean FCS for the Farmers/Fishermen is 48.2 ± 12.5, and for the Vulnerable Groups is 36.7 ± 11.2. Additionally, the p-value < 0.001: Indicates a significant difference between the groups. The findings postulate FCS assess dietary diversity and frequency, categorizing households into poor, borderline, or acceptable consumption levels. The mean FCS for the Farmers/Fishermen is 48.2 ± 12.5, and for the Vulnerable Groups is 36.7 ± 11.2. Additionally, the p-value < 0.001: Indicates a significant difference between the groups. Borderline food consumption findings shows that 35% of the farmers/fishermen are within borderline food consumption. Vulnerable groups fell between 44% to the borderline food consumptions. On acceptable food consumption, 53% for fishermen/farmers, and 27% for the vulnerable groups. Farmers/Fishermen 30% of children are stunted. While Vulnerable Groups 40% of children are stunted. The p-value = 0.05 Indicates a statistically significant difference at a borderline level. On the level of wasting of children under-five, Farmers/Fishermen 15% of children are wasted. Vulnerable Groups 25% of children are wasted. And the p-value < 0.05 Indicates a statistically significant difference. The findings on underweight composite of malnutrition suggest that Farmers/Fishermen 20% of children are underweight. Vulnerable Groups 30% of children are underweight. The p-value = 0.05 Indicates a statistically significant difference at a borderline level. Farmers/Fishermen 82% reported changes in rainfall patterns. Vulnerable Groups 80% reported changes in rainfall patterns. vast majority of both groups perceive altered rainfall patterns, which align with climate variability in the region. Findings on the reported brought in the last 5 year shows that Farmers/Fishermen 71% reported experiencing droughts. Vulnerable Groups 64% reported droughts. Farmers/fishermen report higher drought awareness (71%) due to the direct impact of water scarcity on crop and fish production. On attributed reduced food access to climate, Farmers/Fishermen 76% attribute reduced food access to climate change. Vulnerable Groups 85% attribute reduced food access to climate change. The regression analysis explores the relationship between various factors and food insecurity. Based on the findings on climate variability, coefficient (β) 0.45 indicates that as climate variability increases, food insecurity also tends to increase. Standard Error 0.1 shows relatively small standard error suggests a precise estimate of the coefficient. The p-value: < 0.01 indicates that this relationship is statistically significant at the 1% level, meaning there is strong evidence that climate variability influences food insecurity. Findings on household income suggest that Coefficient (β) -0.3 means negative coefficient implies that higher household income is associated with lower food insecurity. Standard Error 0.08 connotes small standard error suggests a precise estimate of the coefficient. And p-value < 0.05 shows that the relationship is statistically significant at the 5% level, supporting the conclusion that income plays an important role in mitigating food insecurity. The study dive in to provide conclusions and offer recommendations on the basis of immediate or short-term, medium-term, and long-term including policy and structural recommendations.

This paper focuses on the impacts of climate change and variability on crop farming. The main objective of this paper is to assess the impacts of climate change and variability on crop farming systems in Manyoni district, Tanzania. This paper used mixed research design with both quantitative and qualitative research approaches. The research used different methods in collecting information concerning the impacts of climate change and variability on crop farming systems such as key informants interviews, focus group discussions and observations methods. Secondary data were collected through documentary review. Questionnaires were administered to 362 heads of households from four study villages namely Lusilile, Udimaa, Makanda and Magasai. Findings of the research revealed that majority of the farming households acknowledged occurrences of climate change and variability in their localities for the past 30 years. Heads of households perceived that rainfall has decreased while temperature has been increasing. This findings are in collaboration with that from the Tanzania meteorological data. Moreover, the findings revealed that climate change and variability have impacted crop farming system in different ways such as, damaging of crops and persistent low yields, reduction of crop varieties and species, decreasing soil fertility, increasing crop pests and diseases and drying of water sources. Therefore, this paper recommends that, collective efforts from government and other stakeholders should be harnessed and implemented in order to respond to these impacts so as to improve households' food security in the stuyy area. Key words: Climate change, climate variability, crop farming systems, Manyoni district.

The present study was conducted to assess farmers' perceptions of the effects of climate change on their livelihoods. The aim was to compare these perceptions regarding climate trends, related effects, and adaptation options among rural communities in three Semi-Arid Tropical (SAT) villages located in Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh, representing different agro-ecological regions. This study employed both quantitative and qualitative research methods to elicit farmers' perceptions, including farm household surveys, focus group discussions, and key informant interviews. The results of the study indicate that farm households are aware of climate change and are particularly concerned about changes in rainfall patterns and increased frequency of drought events, both in inter-seasonal and intra-seasonal distribution. Among the studied villages, Dokur experienced the most severe impacts from these changes. Furthermore, farmers perceive that natural resources such as land, water, and biodiversity have been affected due to the variations in the climate. In response to these challenges, farmers have adopted a set of adaptation options, including changes in crop selection, land management, water usage, socio-economic strategies, and collective actions. However, the study found discouraging trends in the adoption of these adaptation options, primarily due to a range of barriers that hinder their ability to adapt efficiently to climate change. This study underscores the critical need for region-specific strategic research and development programs aimed at enhancing the biophysical and socioeconomic conditions of these rural areas. Such efforts would enable these communities to improve their adaptive capacity and livelihood resilience in the face of climate-related risks and impacts. Future policies and programs should prioritize the upliftment of these fragile SAT communities, with the goal of enhancing their resilience to climate change and improving their overall quality of life.