The society of prisoners: Anglo-French wars and incarceration in the eighteenth century

REVIEWS

Reviewed by: Reading and the Making of Time in the Eighteenth Century by Christina Lupton Alexander Creighton (bio) Christina Lupton. Reading and the Making of Time in the Eighteenth Century. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2018. Pp. ix+199. $49.95. That Christina Lupton’s Reading and the Making of Time in the Eighteenth Century is best read slowly and carefully testifies to its achievement as both a rigorously researched history and a philosophy of reading for the present. Investigating the reading practices of a variety of eighteenth-century individuals—“actors, clergy, professional novelists, translators, housekeepers, and politicians” (3)—Lupton asks whether, in the modern history of the book, we have ever really had more time to read. Although the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries witnessed a proliferation of printed materials, the era also saw the rise of longer and more regular work days with less free time, what E. P. Thompson famously calls “time-discipline.” When, under these conditions, did people find time to read books? In what ways did book reading challenge the growing predominance of work schedules and clock time? Lupton suggests that there is no one answer to these questions, and her book unfolds as an analysis of the relation between reading and “making time” in two senses: 1) how these readers made time for books; 2) how the act of reading fashioned alternative relations to time. “In the stories I tell,” Lupton writes, “people pick up books, reread them, and postpone reading them in ways that are often out of kilter with the idea of modernity’s commitment to regularity and speed” (8). Lupton’s central argument is that over the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, reading books was seen as a means of negotiating with, rather than capitulating to, an emerging cultural time-consciousness centered around efficiency and speed. “Book reading develops its own character as an activity valued because it can offset newer and faster kinds of reading,” such as the reading of “newspapers, periodicals, almanacs, and sermons” (6). From a bustling early life in the theater that admitted little leisure, novelist Elizabeth Inchbald, in the 1790s, began a calmer life with more time for leisure reading—a progression dramatized in her most famous novel, A Simple Story. The notebooks of William Wyndham Grenville, Prime Minister of the U.K. after William Pitt the Younger, reveal a careful reader who scheduled his readings and rereadings of Demosthenes and Aristotle. In letters to her friend and fellow Bluestockings member [End Page 265] Elizabeth Carter, Catherine Talbot laments her lack of time to read, always interrupted “with a thousand little errands and employments” (40). Talbot’s 1770 Reflections, which takes the form of short homilies to be read on each day of the week, preserves Sundays as a time of leisure—a time for slower reading. Lupton’s readers include fictional characters as well as real people; they range from the mid-1700s through the Romantic period; and all, in their own ways, make time for reading and through reading. The richness of ideas in Lupton’s book comes from her drawing into seamless dialogue several different but related fields, including a variety of kinds of reading and writing, such as epistolary exchange, translation, the study of classics, and the promise of future reading; specific, high-stakes questions about the structure and use of time; and an impressive range of modern theorists and literary scholars, from book historians to philosophers of time to social theorists such as Bruno Latour and Niklas Luhmann. The result is that each of the book’s four chapters unfolds as a lucid progression of ideas. Meanwhile, brief autobiographical asides, interspersed throughout the whole, not only formally underscore the argument that books need not accord with any one tempo, but in content, they address the problem of finding time to read in the age of the internet. At a time when reading is increasingly instrumentalized as a means toward some professional end (or else deemed unworthy of our time), Lupton argues that a reevaluation of reading profits from understanding the history of reading and the temporal politics involved. Rather than capitulate to speed-reading or skipping pages, “I want to promote...

book reviews477 century Ireland.We are fortunate in having Patrick Fagan's edition. His footnotes provide valuable biographical information on the correspondents as well as cross references to related documents in the collection. Moreover, he includes a very comprehensive index at the end ofVolume II. Thomas F. Moriarty Elms College Chicopee, Massachusetts The Diocese of Killaloe. Volume I: In the Eighteenth Century; Volume II: 1800-1850; Volume III: 1850-1904. By Ignatius Murphy. (Dublin: Four Courts Press. 1991, 1992, 1995.Pp. 373,488, 527.) These three volumes by Ignatius Murphy on the history ofthe Diocese ofKiIlaloe in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries are not only a very significant contribution to knowledge, but they will long remain a rich resource for all who will venture to research and write about the modern Irish Church. The Diocese of Killaloe (pronounced likeWaterloo) extends in a broad band across the middle ofIreland from the Atlantic coast eastwards to include virtually all of County Clare, the northern third ofTipperary, and a large part of King's County. In the eighteenth century, Killaloe was one of the twenty-six dioceses that constituted the Irish Church, and while it was one ofthe largest in terms ofarea and population, it was among the poorest in regard to wealth and resources. The diocese was mainly rural, containing a considerable amount of mountain and bog and only a half-dozen towns of any importance, ff Killaloe was representative of anything, therefore, in the Irish Church in the eighteenth century, it was its poverty.This continued to be the case for the greater part of the nineteenth century, and especially in the western reaches of the dioceses.These three volumes , then, are a true witness not only to the courage but to the endurance of the Catholics of Killaloe between 1700 and 1900. The recent and untimely death of the author of these volumes at the age of fifty-five in 1993 was both a sad and a serious loss for Irish historical scholarship .When Monsignor Murphy initially conceived his history of the Diocese of Killaloe, he structured it in terms of two volumes—one on the eighteenth century and the other on the nineteenth century, and he published his first volume in late 1991.The enormous amount of material available for the volume on the nineteenth century, however, had resulted in a manuscript of twenty-five chapters , compared to the ten that had comprised his very substantial first volume. Monsignor Murphy then decided to divide his manuscript into two volumes, breaking his narrative at 1850, and in late 1992 he published his second volume , 1800-1850, which consisted of the first eleven of these twenty-five chapters . By that time, however, he had learned that he was seriously ill, and set to work to prepare his third volume, 1850-1904, for publication. He proposed to revise the remaining fourteen chapters, and then write a concluding chapter 478book reviews that would serve to sum the significance ofhis work on the nineteenth century. He was only able, unfortunately, to revise the first two chapters before his death, and never wrote the concluding chapter.The diocesan publication committee , which had been formed to see the third volume through the press, wisely decided, in consultation with Monsignor Murphy before his death, to publish the fourteen chapters as they then stood, and the third volume was finally published in 1995. The first of these volumes, on the eighteenth century, is undoubtedly Monsignor Murphy's masterpiece. It is in terms ofits conceptual framework and the great learning that informs it, a model of what an artful and thoughtful historical presentation ought to be. After a graceful prologue, which sets the scene, Monsignor Murphy opens his eighteenth century in 1697 with the passing of the first ofthe penal laws affecting the Church in the banishing of all those secular clergy, bishops, deans, and vicars general, exercising ecclesiastical jurisdiction in Ireland and all the regular clergy without exception, and closes it in 1815 with the end of the Napoleonic wars. During that extended eighteenth century,the Irish Church, and its microcosm in the Diocese ofKillaloe, emerged from the darkness of a severe persecution into the light of a...

REVIEWS

Reading Contagion: The Hazards of Reading in the Age of Print

Reviewed by: The Cambridge History of the Gothic. Vol. 1: Gothic in the Long Eighteenth Century ed. by Angela Wright and Dale Townshend, and: The Cambridge History of the Gothic. Vol. 2: Gothic in the Nineteenth Century ed. by Dale Townshend and Angela Wright JoEllen Mary DeLucia Angela Wright and Dale Townshend, eds., The Cambridge History of the Gothic. Vol. 1: Gothic in the Long Eighteenth Century (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 2020). Pp. 516; 16 b/w illus. $155.00 cloth. Dale Townshend and Angela Wright, eds., The Cambridge History of the Gothic. Vol. 2: Gothic in the Nineteenth Century. (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 2020) Pp. 541; 14 illus. $155.00 cloth. Defining the Gothic has been a perennial problem. Is it a literary genre, an aesthetic, or a style? As a historical marker, does it refer to the liberty-loving Goths of pre-Roman Britain, a medieval chivalric culture, or is it a negative definition of modernity? During the long eighteenth-century, Gothic was used as an adjective to describe architecture, political values, and, later, literary texts; in the nineteenth century, the term largely disappeared. In the twentieth century, Victorian studies adapted the Gothic as a “retrospective construct” (II:15)—a category used to group everything from Bram Stoker’s Dracula to the Kelmscott Press’s The Works of Geoffrey Chaucer under the same umbrella. The Gothic’s search for a clear referent has had the sometimes frustrating but also liberating effect of evacuating the term of any clear meaning. Dale Townshend and Angela Wright, the editors of the first two volumes of The Cambridge History of the Gothic, argue that instead of linking the Gothic to a historical period, discipline, or set of formal characteristics, we should understand it as a “mode.” Mode in these volumes means something close to a method or approach, an active means of both interrogating dominant histories and writing “counter-history” (I: 6). The discontinuities and the unevenness in the application of the term Gothic make the case for it as an approach or process. As Robert Miles argues, the Gothic might best be understood as “a temporal contrast . . . between the premodern world of ghosts (timeless, circular, repetitious, with porous boundaries between the self and other, this world and the next), and the empty, chronometric, homogenous time of modernity” (I: 449); or, as Tom Duggett persuasively suggests, “a zeitgeist term—a word in the process of becoming, through contestation and self-contradiction” (II: 105). One of the great strengths of Townshend and Wright’s turn to mode instead of form is that they are able to develop a truly interdisciplinary collection of essays, putting literature, history, art, architecture, and drama into conversation with one another. At the same time, the constraints of the linear history demanded by the form of a three-volume Cambridge History, with separate volumes dedicated to the long eighteenth century, the nineteenth century, and a yet to be published volume on the twentieth century, work against the Gothic mode itself. As I read, I sometimes wished that the essays were grouped in a non-linear fashion, interrogating instead of replicating progressive historical form. Despite these formal constraints, the collected essays provide a fascinating interdisciplinary and transnational look at the Gothic, which almost always begins its story with Horace Walpole’s Castle of Otranto (1764); those in eighteenth-century studies would find these volumes most useful as a means of building a counternarrative of our period’s influence, one that contests the aesthetic and philosophical tenets of the neo-Classical and Enlightenment impulses that still dominate understandings of the eighteenth century; in addition, the collection would aid eighteenth centuryists in responding to recent calls to think and teach beyond the traditional boundaries of period and [End Page 1012] discipline and track the echoes of issues central to the eighteenth century across periods and national traditions. With the third volume yet to be released, this review only considers the first two volumes, which are dedicated to the long eighteenth and nineteenth centuries; they include an impressive forty-one essays from forty-two scholars writing from different disciplinary and national perspectives. In keeping with the Gothic mode, the essays are best read...

Rüdiger Schultka and Josef N Neumann (eds) in collaboration with Susanne Weidemann, Anatomie und Anatomische Sammlungen im 18. Jahrhundert. Anlässlich der 250. Wiederkehr des Geburtstages von Philipp Friedrich Theodor Meckel (1755–1803), Wissenschaftsgeschichte, Band 1, Berlin, Lit Verlag, 2007, pp. 516, illus, €49.90 (hardback 978-3-8258-9755-9). - Volume 53 Issue 3

Images of Barbaric Spain in Eighteenth-Century British Travel Writing Ana Hontanilla (bio) Europe has traditionally been studied as a political, economic and cultural unity that historically developed in connection with the ideas of Christianity, civilization, and empire. After the New World was "discovered," Europe's imperial and civilizing mission was no longer contained within its western boundaries but also occurred within an expanded sense of geography. This is to say that the status of civilized and civilizing Europe was not defined solely from within its geographical limits but also in contrast to its colonial world. Much of the work of describing the discovery, interpreting the exploration, and articulating the connection of the newly-found territories to the motherland in Europe was done through the writings of explorers, ambassadors, soldiers, adventurers, and missionaries. The recovery and analysis of these various kinds of travelers' narratives about foreign and exotic places where they went and lived have brought a new perspective to our understanding of the historical development of the imperialized world.1 Throughout the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, Spanish explorers and conquistadors in America predominantly produced the colonial discourse. During the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, the imperial discourse was for the most part a British and French production, not only in America but [End Page 119] in Africa, Asia, and even Europe as well. In the process of examining the rise of British and French imperialism during the eighteenth century, it is crucial to acknowledge these nations' reaction to the 'Other' beyond their shores. But it is also of prime importance to investigate how they constructed the European 'other.' As Katherine Turner has argued, postcolonial studies that assume an undifferentiated European imperial center during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries presuppose homogeneity among European nations, which in practice did not exist.2 Enlightened notions of civilization and culture served to delineate the division between civil society and barbarism, between Europe and the rest of the world. However, the Enlightenment served to demarcate new ideological borders that not only operated in the overseas colonial world but also within the boundaries of Europe itself. Therefore, the initially uniform picture of imperial Europe or the assumption that modern Europeans defined themselves as a single people breaks down in the context of describing the literature of inter-European tourism, most visibly, perhaps, in British travel writing concerning Spain. In the following essay, I limit my exploration of British travel writing to accounts regarding Spain during the eighteenth century. I study how these narratives produced and disseminated a perception of Spain as an uncivilized and barbaric country, ruling it out as a member of "Enlightened Europe." Spaniards' religious practices were generally tied in with ancient paganism and therefore the population was commonly perceived by foreign visitors as pagan and primitive. In addition, the Spanish Inquisition provided the travelers with a dangerous, threatening ethos that promptly resolved any doubts of whether or not Spain was an enlightened civilized country. The seemingly outdated commercial and political institutions of Spain also contributed, in the minds of British explorers, to the formation of a nearly enslaved population in need of liberation from the tyranny of governmental tax control and its subsequent state of poverty. The local inhabitants too closely resembled the Indian or African savages and exhibited a state of personal and cultural corruption, as well as an economic dependence only potentially alleviated by adopting British institutions. A postcolonial analysis of British inter-European travel accounts shows how differential forms of religious, political, scientific, economic, and social progress in eighteenth-century Spain highlighted discrepancies in the stage of the same civilizing path that all European societies should attain.3 As the idea of civilization emphasized the movement towards political, economic, and scientific progress, demanding an accumulation of spiritual, technical, economic, and political values in the evolution of a nation, not all countries, and particularly not the Iberian countries, matched up with eighteenth-century [End Page 120] British standards of commercial and political reforms. Therefore, the location of Spain as a civilized country became extremely problematic. By referring to Spain's dramatic change of status from imperial power to a culturally-regressive and economically-dependent land, I do not intend to insinuate...

Reviewed by: Eighteenth-Century French Drawings in New York Collections, and: French and English Drawings of the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries from the National Gallery of Canada, and: Drouais’s Portrait of Madame de Pompadour from the National Gallery, London Sarah R. Cohen Eighteenth-Century French Drawings in New York Collections, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York (2 February–25 April 1999); French and English Drawings of the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries from the National Gallery of Canada, Frick Collection, New York (9 February–25 April 1999); Drouais’s Portrait of Madame de Pompadour from the National Gallery, London, Frick Collection (26 January–25 April 1999). Early spring in New York City offered rich viewing opportunities for those interested in eighteenth-century art, particularly drawings. An outstanding exhibition of French drawings at the Metropolitan Museum of Art provided a small survey of eighteenth-century French art, and joined works from New York City museums with much-lesser-known drawings from private collections. At the Frick Collection, one could study François-Hubert Drouais’s riveting portrait of Madame de Pompadour on loan from the National Gallery in London, as well as a judicious selection of French and English drawings from the collection of the National Gallery of Canada. Since many of the drawings at both museums were new to New York audiences, the opportunities for imaginative study afforded by the curators’ careful selections and juxtapositions opened new pathways for considering the complex visual language of eighteenth-century graphic art. The exhibition at the Metropolitan was organized by Perrin Stein, Assistant Curator of Drawings and Prints, and the independent scholar Mary Tavener Holmes; they also jointly authored the informative and fully-illustrated catalogue that accompanied the exhibition. The works selected by the two curators exemplified the many genres and styles practiced by eighteenth-century French artists. In addition to the familiar contrast between the Rococo and Neoclassicism, one could observe the variety of drawings produced toward different ends throughout the century—fête galante fantasies, domestic genre scenes, portraiture, still life, decorative designs, figural studies, and compositional arrangements for history and religious paintings. The three rooms were laid out roughly chronologically: in the first room appeared works by Antoine Watteau, his followers, and early practitioners of the Rococo style, as well as artists associated with the Royal Academy of Painting and Sculpture in the first half of the century; the second room contained midcentury history, landscape and genre scenes, including many works by Jean-Honoré Fragonard; the third featured drawings by artists working late in the century, with a strong emphasis upon Neoclassicism and Revolutionary themes. [End Page 125] Leading off the whole exhibition was, comically enough, Claude Gillot’s Stalled Procession, a new purchase by the Metropolitan featuring a group of strikingly believable satyrs attempting to dislodge a wood nymph’s triumphal chariot from the mud. Gillot’s feathery treatment of the vegetation in this drawing would have a century-long resonance in both French and English landscape; here it was combined with a jittery use of the point of the brush to define the gregarious satyrs. Watteau was represented by several drawings, reflecting the long-standing popularity of this artist among curators and private collectors. The Study of a Man’s Head and Hands from a private collection, a drawing new to this reviewer, neatly exemplified Watteau’s interest in the decorative interconnections of his studies on the page: one hand, executed in red chalk, seemed to grow like a branch from the fluffy contour of the man’s black chalk periwig, while another hand, subtly fusing red and black, parried the outward thrust diagonally on the other side. To see Watteau’s drawings juxtaposed with those by his immediate followers often brings out distinctions, rather than similarities, and here was no exception; the white highlights in Nicolas Lancret’s Seated Couple on the Ground, for example, seemed less to define the figures structurally than to have fallen upon them as gentle snow. Intriguing juxtapositions elsewhere encouraged visitors to note the variety of approaches that characterized French art in the first half of the century. The nervous energy and sensuous watercolor washes of the Fortune Teller, a drawing recently...

Reviewed by: The Victorians and the Eighteenth Century: Reassessing the Tradition Emma Mason (bio) The Victorians and the Eighteenth Century: Reassessing the Tradition, edited by Francis O'Gorman and Katherine Turner; pp. xvi + 268. Aldershot and Burlington: Ashgate, 2004, £55.00, $99.00. C. S. Lewis is a largely discredited critical voice in current literary studies, but his work is worth returning to for many reasons, not least his assertion that "Almost everything which my own generation ignorantly called the Victorian seems to have been expressed by Addison. It is all there in the Spectator . . . Everything the moderns detest, all that they call smugness, complacency, and bourgeois ideology, is brought together in his work and given its most perfect expression." Lewis's declaration appears at the beginning of Francis O'Gorman and Katherine Turner's collection of essays on the impact of eighteenth-century literary culture and tradition on the Victorians, and it creates a forum for a more nuanced examination of the reception history of the earlier period in the nineteenth century, very well realized by the distinguished line-up of contributors here. The volume is staged by David Fairer's suggestive preface, which insists on a more complex inheritance of Augustan classicism, clarity, morality, and empiricism. As the Victorians became increasingly uncomfortable and finally appalled with the sentimentalism and emotive expression the Augustans had forced the Romantics to embrace, they turned back to early-eighteenth-century emphases on those forms of intellect, satire, and artifice so welcomed by Modernism. Instead of regarding the Victorians as reacting to the past in a Bloomian or Freudian sense, then, the editors of the collection claim to dispense "with paradigms of simple patricide" to privilege "the hidden richness and complexity of the Victorians' settlement with the previous century" (3). This is certainly born out by the essays within, which focus on the construction of Victorian language, morality, authorship, and history. Helen Small's opening chapter, "The Debt to Society: Dickens, Fielding, and the Genealogy of Independence," explores these themes through a lens of Nietzschian genealogy to address Charles Dickens's literary relationship with Henry Fielding. Framing Dickens's inheritance of Fielding's writerly style, internalized moralism, and authorial professionalism in terms of debt, Small argues that this sometimes burdensome metaphor is reformed by Dickens to articulate a freedom from literary predecessors. Several of the contributors enter the book's arena of debate like Small, positioning canonical eighteenth-century thinkers in relation to their Victorian legatees. In "George Eliot, Rousseau, and the Discipline of Natural Consequences," Simon Dentith suggests we read Eliot in relation to Jean-Jacques Rousseau's educational and ethical theory; O'Gorman overturns our Arnoldian understanding of Alexander Pope in order to position him instead in relation to W. M. Thackeray, Alfred Austin, Edmund Gosse, and Leslie Stephen in "The 'High Priest of an Age of Prose and Reason'? Alexander Pope and the Victorians"; and in "Departures and Returns: Writing the English Dictionary in the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries," Lynda Mugglestone redresses Becky Sharpe's disposal of 'Johnson's Dixonary' at the beginning of Vanity Fair (1847–48) by heralding the influence of Samuel Johnson's critical lexicography on James Murray's Oxford English Dictionary. Like Mugglestone, Turner also works to broaden our conception of Johnson's influence in the later age in "The 'Link of Transition': Samuel Johnson and the Victorians," reevaluating his appeal to a broad range of readers. [End Page 537] If these chapters serve to reassess reputations of specific eighteenth-century figures, the remainder of the book works to map out the Victorian bequest of groupings, movements, or clichés embedded into literary culture by their predecessors. Carolyn D. Williams's "'The Dreams of thy Youth': Bucks, Belles and Half-way Men in Victorian Fiction," for example, argues that the supposed innovations of the Victorian novel can be traced back to those seemingly cliché eighteenth-century caricatures—"Tory satirists, optimistic bourgeois Whigs, cynical aristocrats and idealistic early Romantics"—so creatively reworked by their inheritors (73). Similarly, Elisabeth Jay examines the development of Margaret Oliphant's understanding of authorship through her spirited engagement with Thackeray and Thomas Macaulay in Blackwood's Magazine. In "The Cultural Politics of...

Reviewed by: The Consent of the Governed: The Lockean Legacy in Early American Culture Edward Larkin (bio) The Consent of the Governed: The Lockean Legacy in Early American Culture. Gillian Brown. Cambridge: Harvard UP, 2001. Pages 237, Price 49.95, ISBN 0-674-00298-9. For the past three decades, with the ascendancy of the republican synthesis in historical and literary studies of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, John Locke's contributions and influence over [End Page 170] this crucial era in American cultural and political history have been downplayed by most scholars of early America. Jay Fliegelman's Prodigals and Pilgrims and, more recently, Steven Dworetz's The Unvarnished Doctrine both offer important challenges to this view of Locke's influence. Gillian Brown's new book, The Consent of the Governed, represents a stunning new addition to the study of Locke's American influence and clearly establishes Locke's centrality to the formation of the nation and its incipient cultural production. Rather than seeking to overturn the place of republicanism in early America, Brown shows how Locke's philosophy and particularly his pedagogical theories played an integral role in the development of new ideas, most significantly a particular sense of the individual, in Europe and America that would make the American Revolution possible. She deconstructs the binarism between liberalism and republicanism that has profoundly marked the study of early America in recent years, and offers a more nuanced and compelling understanding of the philosophical foundations of late eighteenth-century Anglo-American culture. Instead of competing with republicanism, in fact, in Brown's analysis Lockean ideas serve as a critical foundation for "the civic sense registered by republicanism" (9). With claims such as this one in her introduction, Brown makes it clear that her book will yield a significantly different understanding of Locke's influence on the eighteenth century and the literature produced as a consequence of the dissemination of his thought. Principally focused on Locke's complex theories of consent, The Consent of the Governed deftly traces the development of this influential concept, which informed theories of education, politics, and family relations in the eighteenth century. The first major task of Brown's book is to recover Locke's ideas as they appeared and were circulated in the eighteenth century. As Brown points out early in her text, for the last half-century or so we have received a version of Locke that has served the political and ideological needs of twentieth-century liberals, that is distinctly different from the Locke that eighteenth-century Americans would have encountered. The center of her book is ameticulous close reading of Locke's theories of consent and education and the various versions of them that circulated in early America. Brown's readings of Locke are not only fascinating and insightful but also original. In perhaps the most startling and provocative insight of the book, Brown points out the extent to which Locke's notions of consent are located specifically in the person of the child. For [End Page 171] this reason, Locke's educational theories supersede his political arguments in their breadth of influence on eighteenth-century culture. In the first half of the study, then, Brown analyzes a number of key texts where children or childhood figure prominently, beginning with the New England Primer. Her reading of the ways the various woodcuts illustrating the text supplement, complement, and complicate the written messages of the Primer is nothing less than a tour de force of literary and visual analysis. Repeatedly, the woodcuts, rather than simply confirming the message of text, generate their own potential meanings and invite readers to meditate on the meaning of the words attached to them. The meanings generated by the woodcuts often compete (even if only slightly) with the meanings offered by the verses. By offering the child a choice, this supplementary relationship between the words and the woodcuts in the Primer asks the child to decide for him- or herself what is the ultimate meaning embedded in the text. Thus, the relationship between the words and the woodcuts in the Primer enacts the process of consent that is so central to the pedagogical mission of...

Articles and Publications Christopher Densmore and Barbara Addison An annotated bibliography of the titles listed below is available at the Friends Historical Association website: www.haverford.edu/library/fha Quaker Writings, an Anthology, 1650–1920, edited with an introduction by Thomas D. Hamm (Penguin Classics 2010) contains Quaker writings documenting the thought and experiences of Friends from George Fox in the 1640s to 1920. Quakers first arose in a period of religious and political turmoil. Though not specifically about Quakers, David R. Adams, "The Secret Printing and Publishing Career of Richard Overton the Leveller, 1644–46," The Library, 11.1 (March 2010), 3-88, and Ariel Hessayon, "Early Modern Communism: The Diggers and Community of Goods," Journal for the Study of Radicalism, 3.2 (2010), 1-49, provide insight into the era immediately preceding the rise of Quakerism. S.L.T. Apetrei, Women, Feminism and Religion in Early Enlightenment England (Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press, 2010) contains extensive references to seventeenth-century Quaker women including Joan Whitrowe, Anne Docwra and Elizabeth Bathurst. Betty Hagglund, "Changes in Roles and Relationships: Multiauthored Epistles from the Aberdeen Quaker Women's Meeting," in Woman to Woman : Female Negotiations During the Long Eighteenth Century, edited by Carolyn D. Williams, Angela Escott, and Louise Duckling (Newark: University of Delaware Press, 2010) examines epistles written between 1675 and 1700. Amanda E. Herbert, "Companions in Preaching and Suffering: Itinerant Female Quakers in the Seventeenth- and Eighteenth-Century British Atlantic World," Early American Studies: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 9.1 (2011), 73-113, explores the writings and tribulations of traveling women Friends, and concludes that "traveling Quaker women refigured seventeenth- and eighteenth-century constructions of the female body, femininity, and female sociability." Two recent articles examine Quakers and slavery in Barbados and the West Indies in the seventeenth century: Kristen Block, "Cultivating Inner and Outer Plantations: Property, Industry, and Slavery in Early Quaker Migration to the New World," in Early American Studies: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 8.3 (2010), 515-548, and Katharine Gerbner, "The Ultimate Sin: Christianising Slaves in Barbados in the Seventeenth Century," in Slavery & Abolition, 31.1 (2010), 57-73. Three articles examine the publishing and reading of Friends: David J. Hall, "What Should Eighteenth Century Quakers Have Read?" in The Journal of the [End Page 70] Friends Historical Society 62.2 (2010), 103-110; Richard S. Harrison, "Quaker Publishing in Eighteenth and Early Nineteenth Century Ireland," in The Journal of the Friends Historical Society 62.2 (2010), 111-130, and David J. Hall, "Spreading Friends Books for Truths Service: The Distribution of Quaker Printed Literature in the Eighteenth Century," in The Journal of the Friends Historical Society 62.1 (2010), 3-24. Clive D. Field, "Zion's People: Who Were the English Nonconformists?," Local Historian, 40.3 (2010), 208-223, compares the occupational structures of Quaker, Baptist and Congregational Nonconformists and includes data and analysis of Quaker occupations from 1650 to 1901. Local studies of English Quakers include Peter Collins, Quakers and Quakerism in Bolton, Lancashire 1650–1995: The History of a Religious Community, with a preface by Ben Pink Dandelion (Lewiston, NY: Edwin Mellen Press, 2010) and Richard C. Allen, "Nantucket Quakers and the Milford Haven Whaling Industry, c. 1791–1821," in Quaker Studies, 15.1 (Sept. 2010), 6-31. Andrew R. Murphy, "Persecuting Quakers?: Liberty and Toleration in Early Pennsylvania," in The First Prejudice: Religious Tolerance and Intolerance in Early America, edited by Chris Beneke and Christopher S. Grenda (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2011) looks at Pennsylvania's actions during the Keithian schism. Pennsylvania's actions towards and conflicts with its Native American population in the mid eighteenth century are considered in Steven C. Harper, "Making History: Documenting the 1737 Walking Purchase," Pennsylvania History, 77.2 (Spring 2010), 217-233; in Jessica Choppin Roney, "'Ready to Act in Defiance of Government': Colonial Philadelphia Voluntary Culture and the Defense Association of 1747–1748," Early American Studies: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 8.2 (2010), 358-385; and John H. Brubaker, Massacre of the Conestogas: On the Trail of the Paxton Boys in Lancaster County (Charleston, SC: History Press, 2010). The Roney and Brubaker studies include extensive references to Quakers. Joseph S. Tiedemann, "A Tumultuous People: The...

ANCIENT: La Tyrannie Dans la Grèce antique. By Claude Mossé ANCIENT: Histoire des Doctrines Politiques en Grèce. By Claude Mossé ANCIENT: Roman Colonisation under the Republic. By E. T. Salmon ANCIENT: Roman Archaeology and Art: Essays and Studies by Sir Ian Richmond. Edited by Peter Salway ANCIENT: The title of Dr. J. J. Wilkes' ANCIENT: Constantine. By R. MacMullen MEDIEVAL: The Carolingian Renaissance and the idea of Kingship. By Walter Ullmann MEDIEVAL: The Twelfth Century Renaissance. By Christopher Brooke MEDIEVAL: The Reign of Stephen, 1135–54: Anarchy in England. By H. A. Cronne MEDIEVAL: The Kingdom in the Sun, 1130–94. By John Julius Norwich MEDIEVAL: Frederick Barbarossa. By Marcel Pacaut (translated by Arnold J. Pomerans) MEDIEVAL: The Original Statutes of Cambridge University. The text and its History. By M. B. Hackett MEDIEVAL: England 1200–1640. By G. R. Elton MEDIEVAL: Die Bündisse der Bodenseestädte bis Zum Jahre 1390. Ein Beitrag Zur Geschichte Des Einungswesens, Der Landfriedenswahrung und der Rechtsstellung der Reichsstädte. By Jörg Füchtner MEDIEVAL: The Muqaddimah MEDIEVAL: The Last Byzantine Renaissance. By Steven Runciman MEDIEVAL: The Great Schism 1378: The Disintegration of the Papacy. By J. Holland Smith MEDIEVAL: The Age of Recovery: The Fifteenth Century. By Jerah Johnson and William Percy. (The Development of Western Civilization, edited by Edward W. Fox.) MEDIEVAL: English Gascony 1399–1453: A Study of War, Government and Politics During The Later Stages of the Hundred Years War. By M. G. A. Vale MEDIEVAL: The Hylle Cartulary. Edited by Robert W. Dunning MEDIEVAL: Monarchy and Community: Political Ideas in the Later Conciliar Controversy, 1430–1450. By A. J. Black MEDIEVAL: Self and Society in Medieval France: The Memoirs of Abbot Quibert of Nogent (New York: Harper and Row EARLY MODERN: Scholars and Gentlemen. Universities and Society in Pre‐Industrial Britain 1500–1700. By Hugh Kearney EARLY MODERN: Edward vi: The Young King. The Protectorship of the Duke of Somerset. By W. K. Jordan EARLY MODERN: Mary Queen of Scots. By Antonia Fraser EARLY MODERN: The First Trial of Mary, Queen of Scots. By Gordon Donaldson EARLY MODERN: John Stubbs's Gaping Gulf with Letters and other Relevant Documents. Edited by Lloyd E. Berry EARLY MODERN: The Great Debasement: Currency and the Economy in Mid‐Tudor England By J. D. Gould EARLY MODERN: The Charter Controversy in the City of London, 1660–1688, and its Consequences. By Jennifer Levin EARLY MODERN: The English Presbyterians: From Elizabethan Puritanism to Modern Unitarianism. By C. G. Bolam, Jeremy Goring, H. L. Short and Roger Thomas EARLY MODERN: The Family Life of Ralph Josselin. A Seventeenth‐Century Clergyman. An Essay in Historical Anthropology. By Alan Macfarlane THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY: Il Cameralismo E L'Assolutismo Tedesco. By Pierangelo Schiera THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY: The Tsardom of Moscow 1547–1682. By George Vernadsky THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY: Dictionary of Russian Historical Terms from the Eleventh Century to 1917. Compiled by Sergei G. Pushkarev THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY: The Russian Annexation of the Crimea, 1772–1783. By Alan W. Fisher THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY: Autocratic Politics in a National Crisis: The Imperial Russian Government and Pugachev's Revolt, 1773–1775. By John T. Alexander THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY: An Eighteenth‐Century Shopkeeper: Abraham Dent of Kirby Stephen. by T. S. Willan THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY: The British Establishment 1760–1784. By Alan Valentine THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY: Myth and Reality in Late Eighteenth Century British Politics. By Ian R. Christie THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY: An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation. Edited by J. H. Burns and H. L. A. Hart THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY: Jacques Godechot's account of the Taking of the Bastille THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY: Maria Theresa and the House of Austria. By C. A. Macartney THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY: The First European Revolution, 1776–1815. By Norman Hampson THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY: Robert Zapperi's critical edition of Emmanuel Sieyes's qu'est ce que le Tiers état THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY: Talleyrand: Statesman‐Priest. By Louis S. Greenbaum THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY: Jacobin Legacy. The Democratic Movement under the Directory. By Isser Woloch THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY: The Police and the People. French Popular Protest 1789–1820. By Richard Cobb THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY: Europe 1780–1830. By Franklin L. Ford THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY: The Spinning Mule. By Harold Catling THE NINETEENTH CENTURY: The Life and Times of Vuk Stefanović Karadẑić, 1787–1864: Literacy, Literature and National Independence in Serbia. By Duncan Wilson THE NINETEENTH CENTURY: The Insurrectionists. By W. J. Fishman THE NINETEENTH CENTURY: Essays in European Economic History 1789–1914. Edited by F. Crouzet, W. H. Chaloner and W. M. Stern THE NINETEENTH CENTURY: Industrialisation in Nineteenth Century Europe. By Tom Kemp THE NINETEENTH CENTURY: Studies in Railway Expansion and the Capital Market in England, 1825–1873. By Seymour Broadbridge THE NINETEENTH CENTURY: Constitutional Bureaucracy. By Henry Parris THE NINETEENTH CENTURY: Treasury Control of the Civil Service, 1854–74. By Maurice Wright THE NINETEENTH CENTURY: P. T. Marsh's The Victorian Church in Decline THE NINETEENTH CENTURY: A Discourse on the Studies of the University. By Adam Sedgwick, with introduction by Eric Ashby and Mary Anderson THE NINETEENTH CENTURY: Chartism. A New Organisation of the People. By William Lovett and John Collins, with introduction by Asa Briggs THE NINETEENTH CENTURY: The Medical and Legal Aspects of Sanitary Reform. By Alexander P. Stewart and Edward Jenkins, with introduction by M. W. Flinn THE NINETEENTH CENTURY: The Bitter Cry of Outcast London. By Andrew Mearns, edited with an introduction by Anthony S. Wohl THE NINETEENTH CENTURY: The Czech Revolution of 1848. By Stanley Z. Pech THE NINETEENTH CENTURY: Studies in the Government and Control of Education since 1860. Edited by D. C. A. Bradshaw THE NINETEENTH CENTURY: The Education of the People. By Mary Sturt THE NINETEENTH CENTURY: Russian Economic Policy under Nicholas I. By Walter Mckenzie Pintner THE NINETEENTH CENTURY: Gladstone and Kruger. Liberal Government and Colonial ‘Home rule’, 1880–1885. By D. M. Schreuder THE NINETEENTH CENTURY: Entente Cordiale: The Origins and Negotiations of the Anglo‐French Agreements of 8 April 1904. By P. J. V. Rolo THE NINETEENTH CENTURY: Milner's Young Men: The ‘Kindergarten’ in Edwardian England. By Walter Nimocks THE NINETEENTH CENTURY: The central theme of the Foreign Office and Foreign Policy 1898–1914 by Zara S. Steiner THE NINETEENTH CENTURY: Origins of the First World War. By L. C. F. Turner THE NINETEENTH CENTURY: First Sea Lord. An Authorized Biography of Admiral Lord Fisher. By Richard Hough THE NINETEENTH CENTURY: Ireland and Anglo‐American Relations, 1899–1921. By Alan J. Ward THE NINETEENTH CENTURY: The Politics of Grand Strategy: Britain and France Prepare for War 1904–1914. By Samuel R. Williamson THE NINETEENTH CENTURY: Hankey, Man of Secrets, Volume One: 1877–1918. By S. W. Roskill THE TWENTIETH CENTURY: Empire to Welfare State: English History, 1906–1967. By T. O. Lloyd THE TWENTIETH CENTURY: Courtaulds—An Economic and Social History. By D. C. Coleman THE TWENTIETH CENTURY: The Soviet Achievement. By J. P. Nettl THE TWENTIETH CENTURY: The Impact of The Russian Revolution. 1917–1967. Issued under the auspices of the Royal Institute of International Affairs THE TWENTIETH CENTURY: The Irish Convention, 1917–18. By R. B. McDowell THE TWENTIETH CENTURY: The Political Diaries of C. P. Scott, 1911–1928. Edited by Trevor Wilson THE TWENTIETH CENTURY: Communism and the British Trade Unions 1924–1933: A Study of The National Minority Movement. By Roderick Martin THE TWENTIETH CENTURY: The British Economy, 1870–1939. By Derek H. Aldcroft and Harry W. Richardson THE TWENTIETH CENTURY: The Abc of Communism. By N. Bukharin and E. Preobrazhensky; introduction by E. H. Carr THE TWENTIETH CENTURY: The Trial of Bukharin. By George Katkov THE TWENTIETH CENTURY: Lenin's Last Struggle. By Moshe Lewin THE TWENTIETH CENTURY: The Berlin Police Force in the Weimar Republic. By Hsi‐huey Liang THE TWENTIETH CENTURY: MacDonald Versus Henderson: The Foreign Policy of the Second Labour Government. By David Carlton THE TWENTIETH CENTURY: The latest two volumes of Documents on British Foreign Policy, 1919–1939 (Edited by W. N. Medlicott, Douglas Dakin and M. E. Lambert. London: H.M.S.O.) deal wi

Visitors who dcribed the Lake District in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries saw its society as distinctively different from the rest of England and were struck by the survival of a numerous group of small, independent owner-occupiers. These farmers were often called ‘statesmen’, a term applied by outsiders rather than locals and not of great antiquity. Lakeland owner-occupiers preferred to use ‘yeomcn’. A good deal has been written about this social group. However, much of this relates to the seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries or has focused on problems of nomenclature. Research on parliamentary enclosure in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries has established some general trends regarding changing numbers of small proprietors, while census enumerators' books have provided the basis for work on Cumbrian owner-occupiers in the second half of the nineteenth century. Less attention has been paid to, how this society changed in the later eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, when the Lake District was drawn into the mainstream of English society and economic life. The use of the term ‘peasant’ in the title of this article is deliberately contentious as there has been considerable debate on whether the term can be justified for English society after medieval times. Marshall has suggested that one has to go back to the early eighteenth century to find a real peasant society in the Lake District. but Searle has claimed that a peasantry with a near subsistence economy, little penetration of market forces, much mutual assistance and collective regulation of assets survived until the end of the eighteenth century.

Teaching and Learning Guide for: Antipodean Myths Transformed: The Evolution of Australian Identity