Abstract
Many organisms rely on synchronizing the timing of their life‐history events with those of other trophic levels—known as phenological matching—for survival or successful reproduction. In temperate deciduous forests, the extent of matching with the budburst date of key tree species is of particular relevance for many herbivorous insects and, in turn, insectivorous birds. In order to understand the ecological and evolutionary forces operating in these systems, we require knowledge of the factors influencing leaf emergence of tree communities. However, little is known about how phenology at the level of individual trees varies across landscapes, or how consistent this spatial variation is between different tree species. Here, we use field observations, collected over 2 years, to characterize within‐ and between‐species differences in spring phenology for 825 trees of six species (Quercus robur, Fraxinus excelsior, Fagus sylvatica, Betula pendula, Corylus avellana, and Acer pseudoplatanus) in a 385‐ha woodland. We explore environmental predictors of individual variation in budburst date and bud development rate and establish how these phenological traits vary over space. Trees of all species showed markedly consistent individual differences in their budburst timing. Bud development rate also varied considerably between individuals and was repeatable in oak, beech, and sycamore. We identified multiple predictors of budburst date including altitude, local temperature, and soil type, but none were universal across species. Furthermore, we found no evidence for interspecific covariance of phenology over space within the woodland. These analyses suggest that phenological landscapes are highly complex, varying over small spatial scales both within and between species. Such spatial variation in vegetation phenology is likely to influence patterns of selection on phenology within populations of consumers. Knowledge of the factors shaping the phenological environments experienced by animals is therefore likely to be key in understanding how these evolutionary processes operate.
Highlights
Over recent decades, climate change has caused dramatic shifts in the timing of life-h istory events of many organisms (Durant et al, 2007; Keenan, 2015; Parmesan & Yohe, 2003; Root et al, 2003), bringing a renewed interest in the study of plant phenology (Wolkovich et al, 2014)
Recent research has demonstrated that species and populations can differ considerably in their phenological responses to climate change (Roberts et al, 2015; Thackeray et al, 2010), and this can lead to ecological mismatch between trophic levels (Both et al, 2009; Sagarin et al, 1999)
We test a range of environmental predictors of individual variation in spring leaf budburst and development rate and explore how these phenological traits vary over space
Summary
Climate change has caused dramatic shifts in the timing of life-h istory events of many organisms (Durant et al, 2007; Keenan, 2015; Parmesan & Yohe, 2003; Root et al, 2003), bringing a renewed interest in the study of plant phenology (Wolkovich et al, 2014). Studies comparing the phenology of individuals in close proximity to one another, or in comparable environments, have observed pronounced and consistent individual differences in budburst timing, suggestive of considerable genetic or early environmental effects (Crawley & Akhteruzzaman, 1988; Hinks et al, 2015; Wesołowski & Rowiński, 2006) It is unknown how these multiple factors contribute to explaining phenological variation at small spatial scales, over tens or hundreds of meters. Breeding great tits (Parus major), which are limited in the distance that they can travel from dependent offspring, have been shown to time their egg laying relative to oak budburst, and the timing of the peak in caterpillar abundance, within the immediate vicinity of their nest (Hinks et al, 2015) Such studies require a good understanding of how vegetation phenology varies over small spatial scales, but research in this area is lacking. Between the 2013 and 2014 spring seasons, 10 of the focal trees fell (due to strong winds in winter 2013/4) or lost their tags (two beech, three birch, three hazel, and two sycamore)
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