The Science of Language:

The article presents evaluation grids for teaching staff based on professional knowledge models. The grids were developed for the evaluation of chemistry teachers (both pre-service and in-service). The scientific foundation of these grids is represented by models of pedagogical content knowledge and scientific language knowledge. Understanding how students learn chemistry, instructional strategies, the curricular content needed for lesson planning, and student assessment are components of pedagogical content knowledge that are integrated into the evaluation grids. Among the components of pedagogical knowledge of scientific language included in the grids are: facilitating concept development before introducing scientific language; explicitly presenting scientific terms and language; creating a coherent discursive framework in the classroom; using varied resources and representations; applying scaffolding techniques for developing scientific language; clearly communicating expectations; and using specific methods and tools for teaching and learning scientific language. Currently, in Romania, there are no evaluation grids based on validated models of professional competence. Therefore, the authors believe that publishing these grids could significantly contribute to improving the teacher evaluation process, particularly for those in initial training.

Preface Preface to the 1978 impression Works by Chomsky 1. 'The science of language' 2. Chomsky's grammar to the rescue 3. The limits of transformational-generative grammar 4. Chomsky's temptations and falls, or the strange tale of (i) The acquisition device (ii) Code (iii) Linguistic universals 5. The wild goose chase of meaning out of language: Chomskyan semantics I: universal concepts 6. Chomskyan semantics II: making propositions (i) Sense and logic (ii) Reference (iii) Absolute meaning (iv) The super-language Note: Chomsky's mistakes 7. Linguistics and philosophy: Chomsky's failure with Wittgenstein 8. Linguistics and everything else 9. 'The science of language' revisited Index.

Contemporary metaphor research offers a cognitive view to help understand the existence of metaphor used in scientific language. Different from literary metaphor, used as a decorative device, lexical metaphor in scientific language has its unique features. And it serves not decorative function any more, but naming function, exegetical or pedagogical function and theory-constitutive function. With the understanding of reasons of lexical metaphor used in scientific language, people can have a deeper understanding of language and its metaphorical uses. Index Terms - lexical metaphor, cognition, scientific language, function I. Introduction The study on metaphors has been going on for thousands of years since Aristotle. The fundamental aspect in a metaphor is variation and transference of a word meaning. The metaphor at this level is called lexical metaphor. For the reason that metaphor is traditionally taken as a decorative device, lexical metaphors are avoided in scientific language. However, this is a reality that lexical metaphors exist even in abundance in scientific language, such as virus in computer science and appendix in medicine science. How could metaphors occur in scientific language and whats special about them? New perspectives of metaphor can offer appropriate explanations for the existence of lexical metaphors in scientific language. II. Contemporary Metaphor Research The rising and development of modern linguistics set the basis for contemporary metaphor theories. Different views of these theories differ mainly in their regard or disregard for the cognitive function of metaphor and the two kinds of views are entitled by Ortony (1993) and Kittay (1987) with the terms constructivism and nonconstructivism.

Many science students struggle with using scientific language and making sense of scientific phenomena. Thus, there is an increased interest in science education research and public policy with regard to understanding and promoting scientific language use and sensemaking in science classrooms. However, there is a lack of comparative studies on how upper-secondary school students of different achievement and language levels use scientific language to make sense of phenomena. The aim of this study was to explore the relationship between achievement level, scientific language use, and sensemaking in chemistry for students being set a sensemaking task while constructing concept maps on the topic of chemical equilibrium. The concept maps were collected from five different upper-secondary schools in Sweden from two school systems (Swedish and International Baccalaureate). Using content analysis, these concept maps were examined for scientific language use as well as structuring of sensemaking. A majority of the students had difficulty structuring sensemaking in their concept maps, independently of achievement level. These difficulties included unstructured reasoning, symbolic representations being used as explanations, surface-level learning, and linear reasoning connected to rote learning. There appeared to be a connection between learning context and student individual structuring of sensemaking as expressed in the concept maps. The results also showed a clear relationship between scientific language use and achievement level in the student sample. The results indicate that the structuring of sensemaking and scientific language use are not always connected processes. In conclusion, teachers may need to adopt a teaching practice that includes directed and differentiated support for scientific sensemaking.

Chemish – the scientific language of chemistry – is crucial for learning chemistry. To help students acquire the competencies to understand and use Chemish, chemistry teachers need to have a sound knowledge of teaching and learning Chemish: Pedagogical Scientific Language Knowledge (PSLK). But still, despite the importance of this knowledge, the question remains what exactly it is. Based on a model for science teachers’ PSLK developed through a systematic review, this study seeks to validate the developed model by interviewing experienced chemistry teachers, filling the model with more detail, and examining further and systematising chemistry teachers’ PSLK. Therefore, semi-structured interviews with 19 German secondary chemistry teachers are conducted. The interviews are analyzed both deductively using the results of the systematic review and inductively following the approach of Grounded Theory. Finally, the elements of PSLK resulting from the systematic review, as they are knowledge of (i) scientific language role models, (ii) the development of the concept before the development of the scientific language, (iii) making scientific terms and language explicit, (iv) providing a discursive classroom, (v) providing multiple resources and representations, (vi) providing scaffolds for scientific language development, (vii) communicating expectations clearly, and (viii) specific methods and tools for teaching and learning the scientific language, could be validated and described in more detail, and even new elements, as they are the knowledge of (ix) the motivation when learning scientific language as well as (x) the knowledge of lesson preparation and follow-up, could be identified and described through the interviews. Furthermore, elements influencing the development of and PSLK itself are characterized. Implications to foster Pedagogical Scientific Language Knowledge during teacher preparation will be given.

Developmental Medicine & Child NeurologyVolume 47, Issue 1 p. 57-63 Free Access Direct speech and language therapy for children with cerebral palsy: findings from a systematic review Lindsay Pennington PhD, Corresponding Author Research Fellow, Speech and Language Sciences, University of Newcastle upon Tyne, Newcastle upon Tyne*Correspondence to last author at Speech and Language Sciences, School of Education, Communication and Language Sciences, University of Newcastle upon Tyne, King George VI Building, Queen Victoria Road, Newcastle upon Tyne NE1 7RU, UK. E-mail: lindsay.pennington@ncl.ac.ukSearch for more papers by this authorJuliet Goldbart PhD, ReaderSearch for more papers by this authorJulie Marshall MPhil, Senior Lecturer and Speech and Language Therapy Clinic Manager, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, UK.Search for more papers by this author Lindsay Pennington PhD, Corresponding Author Research Fellow, Speech and Language Sciences, University of Newcastle upon Tyne, Newcastle upon Tyne*Correspondence to last author at Speech and Language Sciences, School of Education, Communication and Language Sciences, University of Newcastle upon Tyne, King George VI Building, Queen Victoria Road, Newcastle upon Tyne NE1 7RU, UK. E-mail: lindsay.pennington@ncl.ac.ukSearch for more papers by this authorJuliet Goldbart PhD, ReaderSearch for more papers by this authorJulie Marshall MPhil, Senior Lecturer and Speech and Language Therapy Clinic Manager, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, UK.Search for more papers by this author First published: 13 February 2007 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-8749.2005.tb01041.xCitations: 35AboutPDF ToolsRequest permissionExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShare Give accessShare full text accessShare full-text accessPlease review our Terms and Conditions of Use and check box below to share full-text version of article.I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of UseShareable LinkUse the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. Learn more.Copy URL Share a linkShare onEmailFacebookTwitterLinked InRedditWechat Citing Literature Volume47, Issue1January 2005Pages 57-63 ReferencesRelatedInformation

 Reviews concludes portentously: ‘Aer all, the world, on the brink of destruction, witnessing the mother’s absence, nonetheless remains. It reemerges as photography, aer the total eclipse of the sun’ (p. ). It is a well-organized argument that leads to these claims. Hornby explains in the Introduction that ‘it is in the context of narrative that stillness’s necessary aberrance is most remarkable’ (p. ). In modernist poetry there is no end of images of stillness, as in the ‘still center’ of Eliot’s Burnt Norton, in ‘the dimension of stillness’ of Pound’s Canto , or in Stevens’s uncanny ‘jar in Tennessee’. Hornby, however, has concentrated on how the ambiguous status of photography may illuminate major fiction, and draws the reader into a rich ‘conversation’ (to use a current term) with the likes of Cavell, Barthes, Adorno, Deleuze, and Jameson. Today billions of photographs are being digitally produced and disseminated and one wonders how this affects Hornby’s argument for photography’s ‘aberrance’. Is humanity en masse bent on exorcizing death by the death-like stillness of the photograph? Still Modernism is an important book for those who wish to continue to reflect on the world of light, words, and stills that continues to surround us. U  G M B e Cambridge Companion to Chomsky. Second edition. Ed. by J MG- . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. . xii+ pp. £.. ISBN ––––. is second edition of e Cambridge Companion to Chomsky comprises a collection of entirely new chapters on this eminent thinker, and so is not merely a replacement for the first. Noam Chomsky’s study of language has contributed not only to linguistics, but to other fields such as cognitive science and the philosophy of mind (to name only two). In addition, Chomsky’s political contributions, also addressed in this collection, extend the significance of his work further still. Consequently, the latest edition of e Cambridge Companion to Chomsky should appeal to a wide and diverse readership and is an invaluable resource in studying Chomsky’s ideas. One of the motivations for this edition is to ‘address changes and progress since  in Chomsky’s work on the science of language’ (p. ). As such, a little background knowledge is assumed for some chapters, but recourse can be made to the first edition for further information, as McGilvray recommends. In his Introduction , McGilvray offers a helpful guide to how the reader might approach the book; he also provides a thorough but accessible overview both of the book’s individual chapters and of Chomsky’s contribution to linguistics and politics. e Companion is divided into three parts, namely: ‘e Science of Language: Recent Change and Progress’; ‘e Human Mind and its Study’; and ‘Chomsky on Politics and Economics’. e first of these, with its focus on language, comprises almost half of the book. Chomsky’s Minimalist research program proceeds on the basis that our linguistic capacity is part of our biology, and therefore comes under the remit of natural MLR, .,   science. e focus of the research program is the mental organ or ‘language faculty’ (p. ; see Chapter ), which, upon developmental maturation, gives rise to our species-wide capacity for language. We must keep in mind that the relevant concept is neither the common-sense notion of language nor the issue of how we use language in order to communicate. Rather, Chomsky’s concern has always lain in studying, and ultimately explaining, the structural properties of an internal system (our language faculty) which governs syntax and underpins all languages (see e.g. Chomsky’s e Science of Language: Interviews with James McGilvray, reviewed in MLR,  (), –). e Minimalist Program, in its most current form, offers us ‘Merge’ as the recursive binary operation which accounts for the relevant structural properties of language. Many chapters detail the most recent developments of Chomsky’s biolinguistics, such as Merge, as well as the idea that progress to date has afforded much greater focus upon ‘the specific task of accommodating language to biology’ (p. ). In the spirit of that focus, therefore, several chapters deal specifically with the way in which Chomsky’s theories of language might be considered alongside other fields. Two...

Table of Cases - Preface - Introduction: Law and Language - PART 1 LINGUISTICS AND LEGAL THEORY - The Science of Language - The Language of Legal Faith - The Role of Linguistics in Legal Analysis - PART 2 LEGAL DISCOURSE - Rhetoric as Jurisprudence: An Introduction to the Politics of Legal Language - Law as Social Discourse I: A Topology of Discourse - Law as Social Discourse II: Legal Discourse - Conclusion: Legal Theory and Legal Practice - Notes and References - Bibliography - Index

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Since students’ knowledge of scientific language can be one of the main difficulties when learning science, teachers must have adequate knowledge of scientific language as well as the teaching and learning of it. Currently, little is known about teachers’ practices and, thus, teachers’ knowledge of scientific language, in general, and the teaching and learning of it (Pedagogical Scientific Language Knowledge, PSLK) in particular. For this reason, with this systematic review, we seek to identify elements of pre- and in-service primary and secondary science teachers’ PSLK. The search was conducted on the database Education Resources Information Center (ERIC) and resulted in 35 articles with empirical evidence after the selection process. The results have been deductively and inductively categorized following the framework of the Refined Consensus Model of Pedagogical Content Knowledge, elaborating elements of different knowledge categories that shape PSLK, as well as PSLK itself (e.g., knowledge of (i) scientific language role models, (ii) making scientific terms and language explicit, (iii) providing a discursive classroom, and (iv) providing multiple representations and resources). We can conclude that more research on PSLK is needed as analyzed articles are mainly based on case studies. Additionally, this paper shows a need for a stronger focus on scientific language in teacher education programs. Implications for further research and teacher education are discussed.

This article presents a theoretical framework in the form of a model on which to base research in scientific literacy and language use. The assumption guiding the framework is that scientific literacy is comprised of the abilities to think metacognitively, to read and write scientific texts, and to apply the elements of a scientific argument. The framework is composed of three theoretical constructs: authenticity, multiple discourses, and Bhabha's Third Space. Some of the implications of the framework are that students need opportunities to (a) use scientific language in everyday situations; (b) negotiate readily among the many discourse genres of science; and (c) collaborate with teachers and peers on the meaning of scientific language. These ideas are illustrated with data excerpts from contemporary research studies. A set of potential research issues for the future is posed at the end of the article. © 2004 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed 88:901–914, 2004

Finns der nu nagot system i denna galenskap? --Strindberg, Blomstrens Hemligheter (1) STRINDBERG'S NOVEL I HAVSBANDET, published in 1890, introduces the isolated world of the Swedish archipelago as a border zone between open sea and land, order and disorder, and law and lawlessness. Along the Swedish coast, the well-defined waterline is broken up into a cluster of scattered islands and thus expanded from a border line into a border area--a setting recurrent in Strindberg's prose. (2) Accordingly, the eponymous havsband [chain of skerries], reduplicated in the novel's original title, (3) does not only provide the scenery for the text, but also an aesthetic space in its own right, experimenting with and challenging traditional spatial demarcations (4): the skargard [skerry landscape], as I will argue, is a multiply stratified space composed of several diverse wild elements. Consequently, this transitional area with a gradual change from a terrestrial to a maritime environment (Stora 448) is a hybrid space that has to be domesticated and systematized in order to become habitable. Against this background, Axel Borg, the protagonist of the text, sets out to tame the wild: the raging sea and the untilled island. Yet, instead of simply assuming the role of the colonizer who appropriates a place for his own use, Borg stages himself as vanguard in the original military meaning of the word avant-garde: he is the Trager des Fortschritts (Barck 544) [bearer of progress], a self-appointed pioneer who, in the end, perishes because he utterly fails to establish control over the colonized. Moreover, Strindberg's novel presents, represents, and exemplifies the literary and imaginary aspects of scientific language, redefined as a male and poetic language of power. Through science and scientific naming the technocrat Borg seeks to establish a different and experimental order off things: a new law of how to know and how to name properly. Accuracy and precision down to the last detail are the main qualities of Borg's scientific language, and he presents himself as the perfect Homo sapiens, the knowing man. The designation Homo sapiens was introduced by Carl Limaaeus, (5) who was probably the first to place man in a neat system of biological classifications. Accordingly, Linnaeus and his ingenious taxonomies play a crucial role when it comes to questions of classification, nomenclature, and in particular Borg's highly gendered nomenclature. This article analyzes the relation between science, hybrid space, (6) and radical (gendered) language by exploring the way in which thresholds are crossed and territories entered, occupied, and named by constituting an order that expels a well-defined group of individuals from science and knowledge. Thus, my analysis explicitly challenges the tendencies in previous Strindberg scholarship to reduce the text to its Nietzscheanism, to hurriedly label Borg's language as scientific, and to play down the archipelago setting as a reference to the author's native landscape. (7) As I will show, assumptions of this kind not only underestimate the radicalism of Strindberg's language, but also neglect the acute tension created by the hybrid setting of I havsbandet, which brings the novel in line with the highly experimental texts of the twentieth century. Introducing the figure of hybridity, the crossing of thresholds and border zones is one of the central images of the following close reading of I havsbandet. Eventually, my approach explores the similarities and differences of scientific and poetic language as well as male and female language and highlights the literary and poetical strategies Strindberg's text uses in order to create a progressive order of (well-constructed) knowledge. Consequently, I would like to suggest that the Swedish archipelago novel not only precedes contemporary theories of civilization and colonization, but also foreshadows seminal mid-twentieth-century theories of space and radical boundary-crossing. …

Drawing on analyses of scientific knowledge and language from Foucault and Lyotard, this article explores the role of language in human-animal relations and human-animal ethics. The author examines several ways in which two linked manifestations of language—definitions and available vocabulary within a dominant discourse—aid in the production of linguistic or discursive borders between humans and other animals. Definitions of words such as “culture” or “cruelty” shape, among other things, our perceptions of animals as more or less like ourselves and what we consider reasonable to be done to them. Western scientific processes contribute to the vocabulary that is available to make legitimate knowledge claims about animals. Lyotard proposes the concept of “the social bond” that is created between humans through their everyday language and makes a distinction between this everyday language and scientific language. Using the examples presented in the article, the author contends that Western scientific language, as it relates to animals, also functions to contribute to the human social bond.

We use Universal Dependencies (UD) for the study of cross-linguistic diachronic syntactic complexity reduction. Specifically, we look at whether and how scientific English and German minimize the length of syntactic dependency relations in the Late Modern period (ca. 1650–1900). Our linguistic analysis follows the assumption that over time, scientific discourse cross-linguistically develops towards an increasingly efficient syntactic code by minimizing Dependency Length (DL) as a factor of syntactic complexity. For each language, we analyse a large UD-annotated scientific and general language corpus for comparison. While on a macro level, our analysis suggests that there is an overall diachronic cross-linguistic and cross-register reduction in Average Dependency Length (ADL), on the micro level we find that only scientific language shows a sentence length independent reduction of ADL, while general language shows an overall decrease of ADL due to sentence length reduction. We further analyse the syntactic constructions responsible for this reduction in both languages, showing that both scientific English and German increasingly make use of short, intra-phrasal dependency relations while long dependency relations such as clausal embeddings become rather disfavoured over time.

This article shows how the notion of social representation acts as a catalyst for interdisciplinary relations between sociolinguistics and both language sciences and all other fields of social sciences. The theoretical and methodological problems posed by the study of social representations show that interdisciplinary discussion may be a necessity and not only a scientific choice. We show how interdisciplinary exchanges have influenced the methodological and analytical framework used in the sociolinguistic study of social representations, and how these protocols have revealed in turn the limitations of the definition of the notion and, finally, led to a reorientation of the initial methodologies. We will illustrate the results of these interdisciplinary intertwining in practical terms, by proposing a new approach to social representations (i.e. the representation-in-action) that was inspired by different fields of language and social sciences. We will analyze the representations of interactional competences built by actors of didactic interactions, which allows us to show the relevance of a praxeologic conception of social representations.