The Roman Cement and Its Usage in Hungary

Highly hydraulic binders, known as natural or Roman cements, were key materials for the economic and easy manufacture of stuccoes for the exterior of buildings during the 19th and early 20th centuries. Roman cements were produced by burning naturally occurring deposits of calcium carbonate rich in clay minerals. They were distinguished from other hydraulic binders principally by a very short setting time, agreeable texture and colour, little shrinkage on setting and excellent weatherresistance. They were first produced in England in 1796 when James Parker patented a cement known as Parker's or Roman cement (Parker 1796 ). The material was obtained by firing clay-bearing calcareous nodules found in the London clay beds on the Isle of Sheppey, England. Despite implied links to the Roman binders, Parker's ‘Roman cement’ was a true hydraulic cement very different from the hydraulic binders used by the Romans in which pozzolanic materials, not cementitious in themselves, had combined with lime in the presence of water to form insoluble compounds possessing cementing properties. The Roman cement mortars were mainly used in construction where masonry was subjected to moisture and high levels of strength and durability were needed.

Article is devoted to the investigation of suitability of low carbon Roman cement for restoration and finishing works. The history of the development of Roman cement as a natural hydraulic binder, which was commonly used to decorate building facades in the 19th and early 20th centuries, is presented. The properties of mortars based on Roman cement make it an excellent product for architectural restoration and conservation, as they are characterized by fast setting, high porosity typical for lime mortars, high resistance to weather conditions, high initial strength. At the same time, due to the high surface activity and increased water demand for cement, with the age of hardening, shrinkage deformations can develop, which leads to the formation of main cracks on the surface of the products. It is shown that the addition of gypsum is an effective regulator of the setting time of Roman cement and contributes to an increase in the strength of the cement paste. Analogs of Roman cement based on multicomponent cement binders modified with plasticizing and air-entraining additives are presented.

The interest of German building masters towards hydraulic binders grows at the third decade of the 19th century. This acute interest is stimulated by the import of «Roman Cement» from England and by the acquisition of the knowledge related to it. The dissertation examines the historical events related to the introduction of «Roman Cement» in Germany. It takes into account the simultaneous search for a German way to the development of hydraulic binders based on scientific theories rather than on empirical experiences. Two geographic areas are identified. The East-North-Central States, where the production of cement starts by the end of the 1820s in imitation of «Roman Cement». The South-West-Central States, where the production of hydraulic lime starts by the early 1830s as implementation of German scientific studies about lime and mortar, not as imitation of «Roman Cement». Data and facts have been collected from the 19th century technical literature, books, periodicals, pamphlets, and from archival sources. This dissertation belongs to the literature concerning the early development of German hydraulic binders in the 19th century. Nevertheless, while most of studies focus on regional subjects and claim that the German industry of «Roman Cement» arises by the 1830s even in the South of the country, this dissertation ranges over a wider geographical scale, it evaluates different inputs and shows that, in the South of the country, the production of hydraulic lime arises by the 1830s and represents the root of the peculiar German scientific approach to the production and use of modern hydraulic binders.

The article highlights the peculiarities of Kyiv Art Nouveau, its characteristic features, poetics and symbolism of architectural and decorative facades. The compositional construction of facades in the Art Nouveau style of buildings of the late 19th and early 20th centuries was considered, as well as the connection of the composition of the facade with the composition of architectural details and their placement on the facade. The problem of violation of the compositional integrity of the facades due to destruction, unsuccessful repairs and renovations was revealed. Facades of the Art Nouveau style, as well as facades of other styles of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. have mainly uniaxial, biaxial and triaxial composite facade construction schemes. The axes are distinguished by risalites, bay windows, attics, towers, and often changed scale and shape of windows. Symbolic decorative plastic is concentrated on the compositional axes, at the level of the first and last floors, woven into the structure of portals and attics. On facades in the Art Nouveau style, which mainly have an asymmetric composition with a two-axis facade construction scheme, symbolic decorative plastic is often found on the left compositional axis at the level of the second and last floors. The scientific novelty and practical significance of the research lies in the identification of the features of the architectural and decorative plasticity of the facades of Kyiv's modern-style buildings, as well as in the detailed analysis of the compositional structure and semantic component of the facades of this style. The research will contribute to the deepening of theoretical and practical knowledge about the peculiarities of Kyiv modernism, which can be used in the restoration and reconstruction of building facades of the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

The publication, based on the study of biographical and autobiographical information, characterizes the educational, professional artistic, and educational activities of Ukrainian artists of the middle 19th and early 20th centuries. An analysis of the role of artists as active participants in the national, cultural, intellectual, and social life of Ukrainian society is presented. The author has studied not only the artistic heritage of artists, but also their multifaceted activities, which covered educational, journalistic, and organizational spheres. The article highlights theoretical positions on the educational activities of Ukrainian artists, which are illustrated by specific examples of their experience and influence on the state of society and professional and general education in Ukraine in the 19th - 20th centuries. The author touches on the problems of the direction of the high society of the middle 19th - early 20th centuries. on the development of Ukrainian culture and education; highlights biographical and autobiographical information about Ukrainian artists of the 19th - 20th centuries; reveals the role of the educational activities of Ukrainian artists, their influence on the formation of public opinion; focuses on the relationship between artistic activity with educational and pedagogical practice, the organization of art circles, schools, the creation of studios and participation in cultural and educational societies. Their pedagogical work in schools, colleges, and academies contributed to the formation of a galaxy of famous Ukrainian artists who continued the national artistic and educational tradition of their predecessors. The work also highlights the problem of self-identification of Ukrainian artists as educators and public figures, since art is considered a powerful tool for influencing and shaping public opinion, a means of broadcasting the idea of national revival, social and cultural renewal of the state. Artists took the position not only of creators of aesthetic values, but also of leaders of the national idea, founders of an intellectual space capable of uniting society around common ideological values. The publication highlights the need to understand the heritage of Ukrainian artists of the middle 19th and early 20th centuries not only as artists, but also as outstanding figures of education, who contributed to the formation of national identity with their work.

Europe turned to Eastern cultures at the stage of oversaturation with its own traditions or at the stage of finding ways out of the crisis in the cultural and artistic life of society. Obviously, the fascination with Chinese cultural traditions - first at the mundane level, and later at the level of art and architecture - during the Baroque and Rococo period testified to the oversaturation that gradually grew in the Baroque and Rococo styles, and therefore the appeal to China became a hidden attempt to find something fundamentally new, non-standard. It is quite clear that without a deep understanding of the foundations of ancient Chinese culture, such citation of Chinese motifs in art and in the architecture of country palaces and park pavilions turned them into simplified theatrical scenery. In the same way, the same fascination with Japanese culture in the second half of the 19th and early 20th centuries took place against the background of increasing crisis phenomena in society, when the processes of secularization intensified against the background of the industrial revolutions and the rise to the forefront of the bourgeois class, and that is why Japanese culture with its philosophy of Taoism and Buddhism, which penetrated into all spheres of social life, into art and architecture, was perceived as a desirable way out of stagnation. At the same time, once again, external forms were copied, which were transformed on local soil without a deep understanding of the philosophical and religious background. It should be noted the impact on European culture of the opening in 1897 of the unique temple complex of Dunhuang. As a result of the unstable situation in China during the reign of the Qing Dynasty, many unique artifacts from the Dunhuang sanctuaries were bought for nothing by Europeans and ended up in museums in Europe. This caused another stage of interest in Chinese culture and architecture. The use of aesthetic properties of traditional Chinese and Japanese culture made it possible to enrich the figurative concept of European Art Nouveau. The painting techniques of Art Nouveau period originate from the characteristic painting techniques of China and Japan. However, there is a difference in the influence of Eastern cultures on the art and architecture of Art Nouveau period: if in art such analogies can be traced quite clearly, in architecture at the end of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th centuries, this influence was a much more complex phenomenon than the "Chinoiserie" style of the 18th century: Art Nouveau architects did not literally reproduce Chinese and Japanese buildings, but instead creatively rethought the principles of their formation, layout, function and decoration.

The late 19th/ early 20th century was a period of active usage of low-temperature hydraulic binders, e.g., Roman cement, for the construction of buildings. Dolomitic Roman cement was characteristic of Latvia in contrast to the rest of Europe, where calcitic Roman cement was applied. The research has been conducted with the aim to synthesize a binder from local clay and dolomite compatible with historical dolomitic Roman cement. The results of chemical and XRD phase analyses have approved that Devonian as well as Quaternary clay mixed with dolomite can form a binder that closely conforms with historical ones. The obtained compositions can be considered perspective for restoration needs.

Heritage buildings and their surrounding are inseparably intertwined. Anthropological, cultural, symbolic, religious and technical factors are influencing the choice of constructive and architectural features and their interconnection. An important part of heritage buildings, influencing the general outlook, defining its aesthetics, shaping the relationship with the urban context and ultimately contributing to the skyline of the city is the roof. In recent years, numerous timber roof structure assessment methodologies have been developed, which assess the roof structure only by its structural features and state of conservation without taking the link between the roof and the building and its surrounding area into consideration. However, considering the principles of the European guilds, heritage buildings were built with no strict division between symbolic meaning, craftsmanship, architectural aesthetics and urban design methods. This results in a “Gesamtkunstwerk”, a total work of art, with harmonically interlinked features and fully connected to its surrounding, leading to a full aesthetic experience. All these features highly influence the aesthetics of the heritage building but also the shape and height of the roof. During the late 19th century and early 20th century, at the dawn of modern architecture and urban design, a bold and aesthetically conscious use of traditional crafts and methods took place in most European cities - the Arts and Crafts movement, Art Nouveau, National Schools. This study aims to define how the relationship between building, roof and the urban context is changing in Timisoara during the late 19th and early 20th century. Ultimately the main scope of the paper is to identify the role of the roof structure in defining heritage structures built around the beginning of the 20th century through a transdisciplinary and interdisciplinary approach.

Music and choreography interaction in the stage dances of musical theater productions of the 17th – the first half of the 18th century

The compositional features were considered and the portals of the facades of buildings of the late 19th and early 20th centuries were classified. in Kyiv. Their symbolism, structure and structural construction, stylistics and characteristic architectural and decorative features were studied. The purpose of the study: to investigate and analyze the compositional, stylistic and semantic features of the portals of the facades of buildings of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. in Kyiv, to develop the principles of classification of portals and conduct their classification. Methodology. The research was conducted on the basis of the following methods: empirical, theoretical and empirical-theoretical. The empirical method includes observation, photo-fixation, graphic sketches and constructions, comparisons and generalizations. Theoretical techniques include: going from the abstract to the concrete, abstraction, concretization, identification and separation. Most of the work was carried out using empirical and theoretical methods. The results. Photographs, graphic sketches and classification of building portals of the late 19th and early 20th centuries were carried out. in Kyiv based on the developed compositional-constructive and stylistic principles of classification. It was found that the portals are located mainly on the main compositional axes of the facades of historical buildings, namely on the main vertical divisions, which are highlighted by risalites, bay windows, attics, towers and often changed scale and shape of windows. The role of the portals in the overall composition of the building and the problem of violation of the compositional integrity of the facades due to the replacement or destruction of individual parts and elements of the portals have been revealed. In particular, as a result of unsuccessful repairs and renovations in some buildings of the historical center, the entrance doors were replaced with faceless, rough, unscaled ones, which distorted not only individual facades, but also entire sections of the urban environment. The scientific novelty and practical significance of the research lies in the identification of the compositional and semantic features of the portals of the facades of Kyiv buildings of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, as well as in the detailed analysis of the compositional structure, constructive and stylistic components of the portals. A scientific novelty is the developed classification of the portals of the historical buildings of Kyiv. The research will contribute to the deepening of theoretical and practical knowledge about the peculiarities of Kyiv portals of the specified period, which can be used in the restoration and reconstruction of buildings of the late 19th - early 20th centuries. in Kyiv. The developed classification of portals will be a useful educational reference material for students - future architects and designers who are interested in the peculiarities of Kyiv's historical buildings.

This article focuses on the concepts of war and peace in international law embedded in academic heritage of such scholars as Gustaw Roszkowski andZygmunt Cybichowski, who represented the positions of the international lawyers and academicians working in Lviv (city being named throughout its history as Leopolis, Lwów, Lemberg and Lvov) in 19th century and early 20thcentury. These authors represent totally opposing standpoints with regard to the use of military force in international relations, arguing however that rules on war need to be systematized and regulated by legal norms. It is assumed that the debates on war and peace, as held at the University of Lviv in 19-th and early 20-th centuries were linked to the constitutional debate on statehood and self-determination for Polish and Ukrainian communities, living at the territory of Galicia in the Austro-Hungarian Empire.

The artistic style of Art Nouveau is a phenomenon that had spread throughout Europe in the late 19th and early 20th century. In different countries it had a different name: Art Nouveau, Secession, Jugendstil, Modernism, Stem style etc., but it signified a broad pan-European movement. Art Nouveau brought together the artists from all over Europe, long before the emergence of the European Union. The organization Reseau Art Nouveau Network, involved in research, study and promotion of Art Nouveau heritage, was founded in 1999 relying on the Council of Europe's basic principles in the field of culture. Spontaneous associating of representatives of several institutions from various European cities has grown over time into a cultural route of the Council of Europe and thus got the European character. In this paper we explore the operation of the organization, its objectives and the work results achieved so far.

Reviewed by: Spaces of Memory. Architecture by Aleksandar Kadijević and Milan Popadić Jelena Bogdanović Aleksandar Kadijević and Milan Popadić. Prostori Pamćenja. Arhitektura [ Spaces of Memory. Architecture.] In Serbian, English, Russian, and French. Belgrade: Odeljenje za istoriju umetnosti Filozofskog fakulteta Univerziteta u Beogradu. 2013. 456 pp. 34 essays with 182 black-and-white figures and line drawings, 3 tables, and selected bibliographical references. ISBN 978-8-68880-333-5. Following an international symposium held in Belgrade in 2011, Aleksandar Kadijević and Milan Popadić coedited a sizable and important collection of essays on the spaces of memory with a particular focus on architecture. This volume, Prostori Pamćenja. Arhitektura [Spaces of Memory. Architecture.] consists of 34 essays written by Serbian and international scholars trained in various disciplines—from architecture to psychology—each asking critical questions with respect to the role that architecture plays in shaping individual and collective memory. The majority of the texts deal with the complex formations of the spaces of memory in the territories of Serbia and former Yugoslavia since late antiquity to recent times. Closely intertwined with the questions of personal and collective identity embodied in architecture, most of the essays examine war memorials and various other types of architectural and urban compounds specifically designed for the display of societal values and aspirations in a given time and region. A few essays provide valuable comparative case studies of the memorials in 20th-century Russia, Poland, Scotland, Italy, Germany, and the United States. Written in Serbian, English, Russian, and French and generously illustrated with more than 180 images in order to access the largest readership, all the chapters are thematically intertwined and presented chronologically. [End Page 167] The first essay is by Olga Špehar, who examines imperial palaces—which were built in the territories of modern day Croatia and Serbia during the late 3rd and early 4th centuries—through the lenses of their importance in the promotion of the Roman imperial cult. Several case studies examine the role of Byzantine and Serbian medieval and Renaissance churches and their performativity aspects for creating memory landscapes, closely linked with religious ethos and the memory of specific historical events of the past. Jasmina Ćirić writes thoughtfully on the Old Testament motif of the Tree of Life, whose expanded meaning came to be the prefiguration of Christ and is evidenced in Byzantine and Serbian medieval churches. Branislav Cvetković examines medieval churches and their furnishing built to commemorate specific historical events such as military victories. Saša Brajović highlights the role of the Mother of God and Marian ceremonies and processions in the formation of the civic identity of Perast and the bay of Kotor, during the periods of the Venetian Republic, Ottoman, and Austro-Hungarian Empires. The majority of the texts focus on the architectural and urban designs that highlight societal values or commemorate historical events from the more recent past. Branko Čolović considers chapels and tombs as the expression of Serbian identity values in 19th-century Dalmatia. Ljubodrag P. Ristić highlights the role of the British diplomatic and travel documents in the international promotion of Serbian architectural heritage in the 19th century. Milan Prosen and Viktor I. Kosik examine Russian émigré architecture in 19th-century Serbia and the Balkans as peculiar identity spaces that canvassed vast geographical distances. Igor Borozan highlights the creation of Serbian national visual culture based on the legendary battle on Mišarsko polje of 1806, where, as he successfully argues, the field (polje) over time became a memory space itself. Then again, Haris Dajč showcases how the actual space of the Sava slope in Belgrade provided an urban topography for the historical development of Belgrade in the 19th and early 20th centuries. In their texts, Miloš Stanković, Dragana Ružić, Dimitrije Lj. Marinković, Dušica Živanović, Violeta Obrenović, Vuk Nedeljković, Sladjana Žunjić, Aleksandra Ilijevski, Aleksandar Kadijević, Magdalena Pokrzyńska, Nenad Lajbenšperger, Vladana Putnik, Paolo Tomasella, Ivan R. Marković, and Dijana Milašinović Marić examine specific case studies of memorials built in honor of military heroes and victims of war as architectural solutions for expressing respect for historical individuals that continue to inspire the collective ethos and identity in a given region. These case studies include the...

The paper discusses the infl uence of phylloxera on the socio-economic features and landscape of Dalmatia, a region of Croatia. The aim of the paper is to investigate the spread of phylloxera in Dalmatia and how it affected the landscape, economy and population of the area in question. The research is based on a comparative analysis of various spatial data sources. Phylloxera spread through Dalmatia in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, when the region belonged to the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy. Since agriculture, along with maritime activities and fishing, formed the heart of economic activities in Dalmatia, the crisis in viniculture caused by phylloxera had a particularly negative infl uence on social and economic circumstances. At the same time, changes occurred in the agrarian landscape, as many of the vineyards affected by phylloxera were never renewed ; some arable areas were reassigned to other cultures, while others were completely abandoned.

During the 19th and early 20th centuries in the Arkhangelsk North, sea fishing and hunting were exercised by artels (collective associations). It can be explained by the region’s severe climate and difficult conditions for fishing and hunting, which make working by oneself impossible. This paper is relevant due to the almost complete lack of studies on the internal organization and legal status of sea fishing and hunting artels on Novaya Zemlya and Spitsbergen in the 19th and early 20th centuries. Moreover, studies on these associations are necessary for further research into the Russian experience of sea bioresource exploitation in the Arctic during the 19th and early 20th centuries. The paper aimed to examine the structure and legal status of sea fishing and hunting artels on Novaya Zemlya and Spitsbergen throughout the aforementioned period. The materials included legal acts that regulated the work of artels in the 19th and early 20th centuries, published sources about fishing and hunting artels on Novaya Zemlya and Spitsbergen, as well as documents kept in the State Archives of the Arkhangelsk Region. To perform the analysis, the author utilized the historical-systematic and historicalgenetic methods. The article dwells on the rules and customs that existed in Novaya Zemlya and Spitsbergen artels during the period under study, revealing how the structure of these associations had been changing. In conclusion, the author identified the applicable area of law for these artels in the 19th and early 20th centuries as well as the principles that contributed to their preservation.